ART UNIVERSITY OP no. ^Qyb THE ENGLISH VILLAGE COMMUNITY "1 WORKS BY FREDERIC SEEBOHM. THE OXFORD REFORMERS— John Colet, Kuasmus, and Thomas More : a History of their Fellow- Work. 8vo. 4s. 6) p. 2 • M 5 • 6 26 85 148 152 224 228 256 426 432 134 ^S^^OS^^PISOSMM THE ENGLISH VILLAGE COMMUNITY. CHAPTER I. THE ENGLISH OPEN FIELD SYSTEM EXAMINED IN ITS MODERN REMAINS. I. THE DISTINCTIVE MAEKS OF THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM. The distinctive marks of the open or common field Chap- l system once prevalent in England will be most easily learned by the study of an example. The township of Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, will Open fields answer the purpose. From the time of Edward the Manor. Confessor — and probably from much earlier times — with intervals of private ownership, it has been a royal manor.1 And the Queen being still the lady of the manor, the remains of its open fields have never been swept away by the ruthless broom of an Enclosure Act. Annexed is a reduced tracing of a map of the 1 The lesser manors included in I for the present purpose do not de- it are clearly only sui-nianors, and [ stroy its original unity. B 2 The English Village Community. Chap. i. township without the hamlets, made about the year 1S16, and showing all the divisions into which its * CD fields were then cut up. It will be seen at once that it presents almost the features of a spiders web. A great part of the town- sliip at that date, probably nearly the whole of it in earlier times, was divided up into little narrow strips. Divided These strips, common to open fields all over Eng- raseUraS, land, were separated from each other not by hedges, b*'Ks ^ut ^7 green balks of unploughed turf, and are of great historical interest. They vary more or less in size even in the same fields, as in the examples given on the map of a portion of the Hitchin Pur well field. There are ' long ' strips and ' short ' strips. But tak- ing them generally, and comparing them with the statute acre of the scale at the corner of the map, it will be seen at once that the normal strip is roughly identical with it. The length of the statute acre of the scale is a furlong of 40 rods or poles. It is 4 Form of rods in width. Now 40 rods in length, and 1 rod in width make 40 square rods, or a rood ; and thus, as there are 4 rods in breadth, the acre of the scale with which the normal strips coincide is an acre made up of 4 roods lying side by side. Thus the strips are in fact roughly cut ' acres,' of the proper shape for ploughing. For the furlong is the ' furrow long,' i.e. the length of the drive of the plough before it is turned ; and that this by long custom was fixed at 40 rods, is shown by the use of the Latin word ' quarentena ' for furlong. The word ' rood ' naturally corresponds with as many furrows in the ploughing as are contained in the breadth of one rod. And four of these roods lying side by side made the acre. To /ace page 2. PART OP PURWELL FIELD, HITOHIN. H. & C. GRAHAM LT°, LIJH "V LONDON. S E. The Hitchin Open Fields. 3 the acre strip in the open fields, and still make up Chap- i- the statute acre. very an- This form of the acre is very ancient. Six hundred years ago, in the earliest English law fixing the size of the statute acre (33 Ed. I.), it is declared that ' 40 perches in length and 4 in breadth make an acre.' * And further, we shall find that more than a thousand years ago in Bavaria the shape of the strip in the open fields for ploughing was also 40 rods in length and .4 rods in width, but the rod was in that case the Greek and Eoman rod of 10 ft. instead of the English rod of 161 ft. But to return to the English strips. In many Half acres places the open fields were formerly divided into half- acre strips, which were called 'half-acres.' That is to say, a turf balk separated every two rods or roods in the ploughing, the length of the furrow remaining the same. The strips in the open fields are generally known by country folk as ' balks,' and the Latin word used in terriers and cartularies for the strip is generally ' selio, corresponding with the French word ' sillonj (meaning furrow). In Scotland and Ireland the same strips generally are known as ' rigs,' and the open field system is known accordingly as the ' run-rig ' system. The whole arable area of an uninclosed township was usually divided up by turf balks into as many thousands of these strips as its limits would contain, and the tithing maps of many parishes besides Hitchin, dating sixty or eighty years ago, show remains of 1 Statutes, Record Coin. Ed. i. p. 20G. B 2 4 The English Village Community. Chap. i. them still existing, although the process of ploughing up the balks and throwing many strips together had gradually been going on for centuries. shots or Next, it will be seen that the strips on the map lie or nuann- side by side in groups, forming larger divisions of the field. These larger divisions are called ' shots,' or ' furlongs,' and in Latin documents ' quarentence.' being always a furrow-long in width. Throughout their whole length the furrows in the ploughing run parallel from end to end ; the balks which divide them into strips being, as the word implies, simply two or three furrows left unploughed between them.1 The shots or furlongs are divided from one another by broader balks, generally overgrown with bushes. This grouping of the strips in furlongs or shots is a further invariable feature of the English open field Headlands, system. And it involves another little feature which is also universally met with, viz. the headland. It will be seen on the map that mostly a common field- way gives access to the strips ; i.e. it runs along the side of the furlong and the ends of the strips. But this is not always the case ; and when it is not, then there is a strip running along the length of the furlong inside its boundaries and across the ends of the strips compos- ing it.2 This is the headland. Sometimes when the strips of the one furlong run at right angles to the strips of its neighbour, the first strip in the one furlong does 1 Bale is a "Welsh word ; and •when the plough is accidentally turned aside, and leaves a sod of grass unturned between the fur- rows, the plough i.s said by the Welsh ploughman speaking Welsh, to 'bale ' (balco). 2 See the map of a portion of the Purwell held. The Hitchin Open Fields. 5 duty as the headland giving access to the strips in the Chap. i. other. In either case all the owners of the strips in a furlong have the right to turn their plough upon the headland, and thus the owner of the headland must wait until all the other strips are ploughed before he can plough his own. The Latin term for the headland is iforera\i the Welsh, 'pen tir ; ' the Scotch, ' head- rig ; ' and the German (from the turning of the plough upon it), ' anwende.' A less universal but equally peculiar feature of Lynches, the open field system in hilly districts is the ' lynch,' and it may often be observed remaining when every other trace of an open field has been removed by enclosure. Its rig;ht of survival lies in its indestructi- bility. When a hill-side formed part of the open field the strips almost always were made to run, not up and down the hill, but horizontally along it ; and in ploughing, the custom for ages was always to turn the sod of the furrow downhill, the plough consequently always returning one way idle. If the whole hill-side were ploughed in one field, this would result in a gradual travelling of the soil from the top to the bottom of the field, and it might not be noticed. But as in the open field system the hill-side was ploughed in strips with unploughed balks between them, no sod could pass in the ploughing from one strip to the next ; but the process of moving the sod downwards would go on age after age just the same within each individual strip. In other words, every year's ploughing took a sod from the higher edge of the strip and put it on the lower edge ; and the result was that the strips became in time long level terraces one above the other, and the balks between them The English Village Community. Chap. I. Butts. Gored acres. No man's land. grew into steep rough banks of long grass covered often with natural self-sown brambles and bushes. These banks between the plough-made terraces are generally called lynches, or linces ; and the word is often applied to the terraced strips themselves, which go by the name of ' the linces.' 1 Where the strips abruptly meet others, or abut upon a boundary at right angles, they are sometimes called butts. Two other small details marking the open field system require only to be simply mentioned. Corners of the fields which, from their shape, could not be cut up into the usual acre or half-acre strips, were sometimes divided into tapering strips pointed at one end, and called ' gores,' or ' gored acres.' In other cases little odds and ends of unused land re- mained, which from time immemorial were called ' no man's land,' or ' any one's land,' or ' Jack's land,' as the case might be. Thus there are plenty of outward marks and traits by which the open common field may be recog- nised wherever it occurs, — the acre or half-acre 1 Striking examples of these lynches may he seen from the rail- road at Luton in Bedfordshire, and hetween Cambridge and Ilitchin, as well as in various other parts of England. They may he seen often on the steep sides of the Sussex Downs and the Chiltern Hills. Great numbers of them are to be noticed from the French line be- tween Calais and Paris. In some cases on the steep chalk downs, ter- races for ploughing have evidently been artificially cut; but even in these cases there must always have been a gradual natural growth of the lynches by annual accretion from the ploughing. In old times, in order to secure the turning of the sod downhill, the plough, after cut- ting a furrow, returned as stated one way idle ; but in more recent times a plough called a ' turn-wrist ' plough ' came into use, which by re- versing its share could be used both ways, to the great saving of time. H1TCHI PURWELL t PROPRIETORS WITH TUl'IC N U M B E B '/:, face page 6. Byda, Esq. Carter. Esq. Mrs. Simpson Rev. Mr. Whitekursi Mr. Kd. THstram ' Late Mr. Gravely Hi Mr. Charles Baron Jno.Bxuicliffc.Esq Wm.Lueas Brewer Late Thomas Smiti Mrs. Ann Newman Tiamuis Goldsmith Thomas Lyle Francis Th.vtch.ei Mr Jiu'- Fast ci Mrs. Field M'- Vincent Mr. Wm.Male£n. Late Wm.Lucas Betyrt. Dobbi Mr Ransom, Mr Warbe Late Widow Paternos James Jqyner Mr. James Mr.Jno. Colimson Late Andrew Oakle\ WnuDimsey Mr Collins Mrs. B arrina to n Charity Land Mr. Bradley Mr. Capreol Mr. Cooper Mr. Lane Mr Feirsorv Late Mr. Turner Mr Jno- Turner Mr Gray Widow Jevis Mr.Jno. Overitt Mr. Palmer Mr. Warner Green. Mrs. Flack Late Hurst Widow Vobbs Mr Hatton Mr. Win. Thomas HITCH IN FURWELL FIELD PROPRIETORS NAMES NUMB i. B 9 By&a, £>■/ i ft* .V- Wfctfefoowf i Afi Rd IWrtxtm :. toe Bfi <,,,„.■',- ffunn B iron ' Jrux RaJi-titT,- , B*q. - 8 [ffn 1 u, , *;,■.„■.■-• . a Mr. GiUou Mr Bradley Mr Capreol -1 Ifi / : Mr i*«r*or< Xute Mr Turn.-, MrJno .Ov,-ntt H Bdwt • 3/r lfi>i-n.v Ooan Line Bur tt . Widow Vobb* ... Mr Batten M, V iThnm ft& ,i ..;,<.■ ii hum made earh •■■ •!■■■■■ •■■■u.i r The Hitchin Open Fields. 7 strips or selio?ies, the gored shape of some of them, Chap. i. the balks and sometimes lynches between them, the shots or furlongs (quarentence) in which they lie in groups, the headlands which give access to the strips when they lie off the field-ways, the butts, and lastly the odds and ends of ' no man's land.' II. SCATTERED AND INTERMIXED OWNERSHIP IN THE OPEN FIELDS. Passing from these little outward marks to the Scattered matter of ownership, a most inconvenient peculiarity miXed presents itself, which is by far the most remarkable ownershlP- and important feature of the open field system wher- ever it is found. It is the fact that neither the strips nor the furlongs represented a complete holding or property, but that the several holdings were made up of a multitude of strips scattered about on all sides of the township, one in this furlong and another in that, intermixed, and it might almost be said entangled together, as though some one blindfold had thrown them about on all sides of him. The extent to which this was the case in the Hitchin common fields, even so late as the beginning of the present century, will be realised by reference to the map annexed. It is a reduced tracing of a map showing the ownership of the strips in one divi- sion of the open fields of Hitchin called the Purwell field. The strips are numbered, and correspond with the owners' names given in the tally at the side. The strips belonging to two of the owners are also coloured, so as at once to catch the eye, and the area of each separate piece is marked upon it. The num- 8 The English Village Community. Chap. i. ber of scattered pieces held by each owner is also given in the note below ; and as the map embraces only about one-third of the Hitchin fields, it should be noticed that each owner probably held in the parish three times as many separate pieces as are there described ! 1 Further, at the side of the map of the Hitchin township, is a reduced tracing of a plan of the estate of a single landowner in the townfields of Hitchin, which shows very clearly the curious scatter- ing of the strips in a single ownership all over the fields, notwithstanding that the tendency towards consolidation of the holdings by exchanges and pur- chases had evidently made some progress. III. THE OPEN FIELDS WERE THE COMMON FIELDS OF A VILLAGE COMMUNITY OR TOWNSHIP UNDER A MANOR. The next fact to be noted is that under the English system the open fields were the common fields — the arable land — of a village community or township under a manorial lordship. This could hardly be more clearly illustrated than by the Hitchin example. 1 The number of parcels held by each owner was as follow s: — Owner Parcels Owner Parcels Owner Parcels Owner Parcels No. 1 . 38 No. 14 . . 5 No .27. 1 No. 39 . . 1 2. 35 15 . . 8 28. 0 40. . 1 3. 28 16 . . 7 29. 1 41 . . 6 4 . 26 17 . . 2 30. 3 42 . . 3 6. 3 18 . 1 31 . 2 43 . . 2 0. 8 19 12 82 1 44 . . 1 7. 4 20 . . 1 33. 3 45. . 1 8. 28 21 . . 3 34. 6 46. . 2 9. 6 22 . . 1 35. 4 47. . 7 10. 1 23 . . 4 36. 1 48. . 1 11 . 10 24 . . 0 37. o 12. 2 25 . . 0 38. 2 Total 289 13. 6 26 . . 1 e boundaries. The Hitchin Open Fields. 9 The Hitchin manor was, as already stated, a royal Chap. i. manor. The Court Leet and View of Frankpledge were held concurrently with the Court Baron of the manor. Periodically at this joint court a record was Periodical made on the presentment of the jurors and homage menTof of various particulars relating to both the manor and^t^"8 and tOWnship. homage of x the manor. The record for the year 1819 will be found at length in Appendix A, and it may be taken as a com- mon form. The jurors and homage first present that the manor comprises the township of Hitchin and hamlet of Wals worth, and includes within it three lesser manors ; also that it extends into other hamlets and parishes. They then record the boundaries of the township £jj (including the hamlet of Walsworth) as follows, viz. : — ' From Orton Head to Burford Ray, and from thence to a Water Mill called Hide Mill, „ „ „ Willberry Hills, „ „ „ a place called Bossendell, „ „ „ a Water Mill called Purwell Mill, „ „ „ a Brook or River called Ippollitt's Brook, „ „ „ Maydencroft Lane, „ „ „ a place called Wellhead, „ „ ,, a place called Stubborn Bush, „ „ „ a place called Offley Cross, „ „ „ Five Borough Hills [Five Barrows], „ „ back to Orton Head, -where the boundaries commenced.' The form in which these boundaries are given is of great antiquity. It is a form used by the Eomans two thousand years ago, and almost continuously followed from that time to this.1 Its importance for 1 Hyginus de Condicionibus Agro- i 114. ' Nam invenimus ssepe in pub- rum. Die Schriften der Romischen licis instruments significanter in- Feldmesser (Lachmann, &c), i. p. I scripta territoria, ita ut ex colliculo cers 10 The English Village Community. Chap. i. the purpose in hand will be manifest as the inquiry proceeds. The courts. The jurisdiction of the Court Leet and View of Frankpledge is recorded to extend within the fore- going boundaries, i.e. over the township, that of the Court Baron beyond them over the whole manor, which was more extensive than the township. The Court Leet is therefore the Court of the township, the Court Baron that of the manor. It is then stated that in the Court Leet at Michael- mas the jurors of the king elect and present to the lord — The offi- Two constables, Six headboroughs (two for each of the three wards), Two ale-conners, Two leather-searchers and sealers, and A bellman, who is also the watchman and crier of the town. All the foregoing presentments have reference to the township, and are those of ' the jurors of our lord the King (i.e. of the Court Leet), and the homage of the Court ' [Baron] of the manor. Jeiiefs, Then come presentments of the homage of the Court of the Manor alone, describing the reliefs of free- holders and the fines, &c, of copyholders under the manor, and various particulars as to powers of leasing, qui appellator ille ad flumen Mud, et i qui appellator ille, et inch deorsum super Jlumen illud ad rivum ilium aut \ versus ad locum ilium, ct indc ad mam illam, et per mam illam ad in- compitum illius, et inde per monu- fima montis illius, qui locus appel- mentum illius, ad locum unde pri- latur ille, et inde per jugum montis mum ccepit scriptura esse.' See as illius in summum, et super summum an early example, ' Sententia Mirm- montis per divtrgia aqua: ad locum, cioruin,' Corpus Inscript. Lat. i. 199- fines, &c. The Uitchin Open Fields. 11 forfeiture, cutting timber, lieriots, &c. ; the freedom Chap. i. of grain from toll in the market, the provision by the lord of the common pound and the stocks for the use Pound of the tenants of the manor, and the right of the lord with the consent of the homage to grant out portions of the waste by copy of court roll at a rent and the customary services. Next the commons are described. (1) The portions coloured dark green on the map Green are described as Green Commons, and those coloured Lammas ' light green as Lammas Meadows ; 1 and every occupier meadows- of an ancient messuage or cottage in the township has certain defined rights of common thereon, the obligation to find the common bull falling upon the rectory, and a common herdsman being elected by the homage at a Court Baron. (2) The common fields are stated to be — Common v ' J fields. Purwell field, .Welshman's croft, Burford field, Spital field, Moremead field, Bury field ; and it is recorded that these common fields have immemorially been, and ought to be, kept and culti- vated in three successive seasons of tilth grain, etch The three grain, and fallow : Purwell field and Welshman's rotation of croft being fallow one year ; Burford field and Spital erops' field the next year ; Moremead field and Bury field the year after, and so on in regular rotation. 1 The lammas meadows are I laud for the purpose of the hay divided into strips like the arable I crop. 12 The English Village Community. Chap. I. Common rights over the open fields when not under crop. Hamlet. Copyholds and free- holds inter- mixed. It is stated that every occupier of unenclosed land in any of the common fields of the township may pas- ture his sheep over the rest of the field after the corn is cut and carried, and when it is fallow. If he choose to enclose his own portion of the com- mon field he may do so, but he then gives up for ever his right of pasture over the rest. It is under this custom that the strips and balks are gradu- ally disappearing. The ancient messuages and cottages in the hamlet of Walsworth had their separate green common and herdsman, but (at this date) no common fields, be- cause they had already been some time ago enclosed. It will be seen from the map how very small a proportion of the land of the township was in meadow or pasture. The open arable fields occupied nearly the whole of it. The community to which it be- longed, and to whose wants it was fitted, was evi- dently a community occupied mainly in agriculture. Another feature requiring notice was the fact that in the open fields freehold and copyhold land were intermixed ; some of the strips being freehold, whilst the next strip was copyhold, instead of all the free- hold and all the copyhold lying together. And in the same way the lands belonging to the three lesser or sub-manors lay intermixed, and not all apart by themselves. The open field system overrode the whole. Thus, if the Hitchin example may be taken as a typical one of the English open field system, it may be regarded generally as having belonged to a village or township under a manor. We may assume that the holdings were composed of numbers of strips scattered The Hitcldn Open Fields. 13 over the three open fields : and that the husbandry Chap. i. was controlled by those rules as to rotation of crops and fallow in three seasons which marked the three- field system, and secured uniformity of tillage throughout each field. Lastly, whilst fallow after the crop was gathered, the open fields were pro- bably everywhere subject to the common rights of pasture. The sheep of the whole township wandered and pastured all over the strips and balks of its fields, while the cows of the township were daily driven by a common herdsman to the green com- mons, or, after Lammas Day, when the hay crop of the owners was secured, to the lammas meadows. IV. THE WIDE PREVALENCE OF THE SYSTEM THROUGH GREAT BRITAIN. But before the attempt is made to trace back the system, it may be well to ask what evidence there is as to its wide prevalence in England, and with what reason the particular example of the Hitchin town- ship may be taken as generally typical. In the first place, an examination into the details Enclosure of an Enclosure Act will make clear the point that °^^ the system as above described is the system which it was the object of the Enclosure Acts to remove. They were generally drawn in the same form, com- mencing with the recital that the open and common fields lie dispersed in small pieces intermixed with each other and inconveniently situated, that divers persons own parts of them, and are entitled to rights of common on them, so that in their present state they are incapable of improvement, and that it is 14 The English Village Community. Chap.x desired that they may be divided and enclosed, a specific share being set out and allowed to each owner. For this purpose Ed closure Commissioners are appointed, and under their award the balks are ploughed up, the fields divided into blocks for the several owners, hedges planted, and the whole face of the country changed. The common fields of twenty-two parishes within ten miles of Hitchin were enclosed in this way be- tween 1766 and 1832. All the Acts were of the Number of same character.1 And as, taking the whole of Eng- land, with, roughly speaking, its 10,000 parishes, nearly 4,000 Enclosure Acts were passed between 1760 1 These Enclosure Acts -were as follows : — Date of Enclosure Acts Karnes of Parishes whose open fields were thereby enclosed 1766 1795 1796 1797 1797 1797 1802 1802 1804 1807 I SOS 1809 1810 1811 1811 1827 1832 Hexton [Herts]. Ilenlow [Beds]. Norton [Herts]. Carnpton-cum-Shefford [Beds]. King's Walden [Herts!. Weston [Herts]. Hinxworth [Herts], f Shitlington [Beds]. JHolwell [Beds]. Arlsey [Beds]. Offley [Herts], Luton [Beds], Barton-in-the-Clay [Beds]. Codicote [Herts]. Welwyn [Herts]. Knebworth [Herts]. Pirton [Herts]. [Great Wymondley [Herts], j Little Wymondley [Herts]. llppollitts [Herts]. Langford | Beds], Clifton [Beds]. The Hitch in Open Fields. 15 and 1844,1 it will at once be understood how gene- Chap, l rally prevalent was this form of the open field system so late as the days of the grandfathers of this gene- ration. The old 'Statistical Account of Scotland,' ob- tained eighty years ago by inquiry in every parish, shows that at its date, under the name of ' run-rig,' a simpler form of the open field system still lingered on here and there more or less all over Scotland, wide ex- tent of Traces of it still exist in the Highlands, and there open field are well-known remains of its strips and balks also SJS in Wales. The run-rig system is still prevalent in some parts of Ireland. But at present we confine our attention to the form which the system assumed in England, and for this purpose the Hitchin example may fairly be taken as typical. Now, judged from a modern point of view, it will readily be understood that the open field system, and especially its peculiarity of straggling or scattered ownership, regarded from a modern agricultural point Unecono- r ° ° x niical ; of view, was absurdly uneconomical. The waste of time in getting about from one part of a farm to another ; the uselessness of one owner attempting to clean his own land when it could be sown with thistles from the seed blown from the neighbouring strips of a less careful and thrifty owner ; the quarrelling about headlands and rights of way, or 1 Porter's Pi Off) ess of the Nation) P 146 : — 1760-69 . # . 385 1820-29 . . 205 1770-79 . # . 660 1830-39 . . 136 1780-89 . # . 246 1840-44. . 66 1790-99 . . . 469 1800-9 . , . 847 3,867 1810-19 • . 853 16 The English, Village Community. Chap. I. paths made without right ; the constant encroach- ments of unscrupulous or overbearing holders upon the balks — all this made the system so inconvenient, that Arthur Young, coining across it in France, could hardly keep his temper as he described with what perverse ingenuity it seemed to be contrived as though purposely to make agriculture as awkward and uneconomical as possible, but must But these now inconvenient traits of the open meaning ne^ system must once have had a meaning, a once. use? an(j even a convenience which were the cause of their original arrangement. Like the apparently meaningless sentinel described by Prince Bismarck uselessly pacing up and down the middle of a lawn in the garden of the Eussian palace, there must have been an originally sufficient reason to account for the beginning of what is now useless and absurd. And just as in that case, search in the military archives dis- closed that once upon a time, in the days of Catherine the Great, a solitary snowdrop had appeared on the lawn, to guard which a sentinel was posted by an order which had never been revoked ; so a similar search will doubtless disclose an ancient original reason for even the (at first sight) most unreasonable features of the open field system. CHAPTER n. THE ENGLISH OPEN FIELD SYSTEM TRACED BACK TO THE DOMESDAY SURVEY— IT IS THE SHELL OF SERFDOM— THE MANOR WITH A VILLAGE COM- MUNITY IN VILLENAGE UPON IT. I. THE IDENTITY OF THE SYSTEM WITH THAT OF THE MIDDLE AGES. That this open field system, the remains of which chap. ii. have now been examined, was identical with that which existed in the Middle Ages might easily be proved by a continuous chain of examples. But it will be enough for the present purpose to pick out a few typical instances, using them as stepping-stones. It would be easy to quote Tusser's description of Tussor. ' Champion Farming ' in the sixteenth century. In his 'Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry' he describes the respective merits of ' several,' and ' champion ' or open field farming. But as he describes the latter as a system already out of date in his time, and as rapidly giving way to the more economical system of ' several ' or enclosed fields, we may pass on at once to evidence another couple of centuries earlier in date. Plowman. 18 The English Village Community. Chap. ii. Of the fact that the open field system 500 years ago (in the fourteenth century), with its divisions into furlongs and subdivision into acre or half-acre strips, existed in England, the ' Vision of Piers the Plowman ' may be appealed to as a witness. Piers the What was ' the faire felde ful of folke,' in which the poet saw ' alle maner of men ' ' worchyng and wandryng,' some 'putten hem to the plow,' whilst others 'in settyng and in sowyng swonken ful harde 'P1 A modern English field shut in by hedges would not suit the vision in the least. It was clearly enough the open field into which all the villagers turned out on the bright spring morning, and over which they would be scattered, some working and some looking on. In no other ' faire felde ' would he see such folk of all sorts, the ' [husjbondemen,' bakers and brewers, butchers, woolwebsters and weavers of linen, tailors, tinkers, and tollers in market, masons, dikers, and delvers ; while the cooks cried ' Hote pies hote ! ' and tavern-keepers set in competition their wines and roast meat at the alehouse.2 Then as to the division of the fields into furlongs ; remembering that the wide balks between them and along the headlands were often covered with ' brakes and brambles,' the point is at once settled by the naive confession of the priest who scarce knew per- fectly his Paternoster, and could ' ne solfe ne synge ' 'ne seyntes lyues rede,' yet knew well enough the 4 rymes of Robyn hood,' and how to ' fynde an hare in B.fourlonge.iS 1 Prolog us, lines 17 to 21. * Prologus, 2 1 0 to end. 8 Pauus, v. 400 to 428. Earlier Traces. 19 Further, a chance indication that the furlongs Chap, il were divided into half-acre strips occurs most natu- rally in that part of the story where the folk in the fair field, sick of priests and parsons and other false guides, come at last to Piers the plowman, and beg him to show them the way to truth ; and he replies that he must first plow and sow his ' half- acre : ' I have an half acre to erye ' bi the heighe way : Hadde I eried this half acre ■ and sowen it after, I wolde wende with you * and the way teche.1 And if there should remain a shadow of doubt whether Piers' half-acre must necessarily have been one of the strips between the balks into which the furlongs were divided, even this is cleared up by the perfect little picture which follows of the folk in the field helping him to plow it. For in its unconscious truthfulness of graphic detail, after saying, — Now is perkyn and his pilgrymes • to the plowe faren : To erie his halue acre ■ holpyn hym manye, the very first lines in the list of services rendered explain that — Dikeres and delueres ■ digged up the balkes.2 This incidental evidence of ' Piers the Plowman' is Temer of , Cambridge fully borne out by a manuscript terrier of one of the open fields open fields near Cambridge, belonging to the later fourteenth years of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth cenLury- century.3 It gives the names of the owners and occupiers of all the seliones or strips. They are 1 Passus, vi. 4 to 6. 2 Passus, vi. 107-9. 8 I am indebted to Mr. Brad- shaw for having called my attention to this MS., which is now in the Cambridge University Library. c2 20 The English Village Community. The system already decaying. Chap. n. divided by balks of turf. They lie in furlongs or quarentence. They have frequently headlands or forerce. Some of the strips are gored, and called gored acres. Many of them are described as butts. Indeed, were it not that the country round Cam- bridge being Hat there are no lynches, almost every one of the features of the system is distinctly visible in this terrier. But this terrier also contains evidence that the system was even then in a state of decay and disin- tegration. The balks were disappearing, and the strips, though still remembered as strips, were becom- ing merged in larger portions, so that they lie thrown together sine balca. The mention is frequent of iii. seliones which used to be v., ii. which used to be iv., iii. which used to be viii., and so on. Evidently the meaning and use of the half-acre strips are already gone. It will be well, therefore, to take another leap, and at once to pass behind the Black Death — that great watershed in economic history — so as to examine the details of the system before rather than after it had sustained the tremendous shock which the death in one year of half the population may well have given to it. A remarkably excellent opportunity for inquiry is presented by a complete set of manor rolls during the reign of Edward III. for the Manor of Winslow in Buckinghamshire, preserved in the Cambridge Uni- versity Library.1 Winslow Manor rolls of Ed. III. 1 MS. Dd. 7. 22. I am much indebted to Mr. Bradshaw for the loan of this MS. i'rom the Library. Earlier Traces. 21 No evidence could possibly be more to the pur- Chap. ii. pose. Belonging to the Abbey of St. Albans, the rolls were kept with scrupulous accuracy and care. Every change of ownership during the long reign of Edward III. is recorded in regular form ; and the year 1348-9 — the year of the Black Death — occurring. in the course of this reign, and occasioning more changes of ownership than usual, the MS. presents, if one may appropriate a geological expression, something like an economic section of the manor, revealing with un- usual clearness the various economic strata in which its holdings were arranged. Before examining these holdings it is needful only The open & # & J field. to state that here, as in the later examples, the fields of the manor are open fields, divided into furlongs, which in their turn are made up with apparently almost absolute regularity of half-acre strips. When- ever (with very rare exceptions) a change of owner- ship takes place, and the contents of the holding are described, they turn out to be made up of half-acre pieces, or seliones, scattered all over the fields. The typical entry on these rolls in such cases is Half-acre that A. B. surrenders to the lord, or has died holding, & rips a messuage and so many acres of land, of which a half-acre lies in such and such a field, and often in such and such a furlong, between land of C. D. and E. F., another half- acre somewhere else between two other persons' land, another half-acre somewhere else, and so on. If the holding be of 1J acres it is found to be in 3 half-acre pieces, if of 4 acres, in 8 half-acre pieces, and so on, scattered over the fields. Sometimes amongst the half-acres are mentioned still smaller portions, roods and even half-roods or doles 22 The English Village Community. Chap. IJ. (chiefly of pasture or meadow land), belonging to the holdings, but the division into half-acre strips was clearly the rule. There can be no doubt, therefore, of the identity of the system seen at work in these manor rolls with that of which some of the debris may still be exa- mined in unenclosed parishes to-day. Demesne and villen- affe. II. THE WINSLOW MANOR ROLLS OF THE REIGN OF EDWARD III. — EXAMPLE OF A VIRGATE OR YARD- LAND. Starting with the fact that the fields of the manor of Winslow and its hamlets l were open fields divided into furlongs and half- acre strips, the chief object of inquiry will be the nature of the holdings of its various classes of tenants. In the first place the land of the manor was divided, like that of almost all other manors, into two distinct parts — land in the lord's demesne, and land in villenage. The land in demesne may be described as the home farm of the lord of the manor, including such portions of it as he may have chosen to let off to tenants for longer or shorter terms, and at money rents in free tenure. The land in villenage is also in the occupation of tenants, but it is held in villenage, at the will of the lord, and at customary services. It lies in open fields. These are divided into three seasons, according to the 1 The MS. is beaded ' Extracta Rotuloruui de Ilalimotis tentis apud Manerium de AVviiselowe teuqrore Edwardi tercii a Con uestu ' and it embraced Wynselowe, Horehcode, Greneburglt, Shipton, Nova Villa de Wynselouc, Onyiuj, and Muston. The Winslow Manor Rolls. 23 three-field system. There is a west field, east field, Chap, ii. and south field. The demesne land lies also in these Three-field three fields,1 probably more or less intermixed, as in 8ys many cases,' with the strips in villenage, but some- times in separate furlongs or shots from the latter. Throughout the pages of the manor rolls, in record- ing transfers of holdings in villenage, the common form is always adhered to of a surrender by the old tenant to the lord, and a re-grant of the holding to the new tenant, to be held by him at the will of the lord in villenage at the usual services. Where the change of holding occurs on the death of a tenant, the common form recites that the holding has reverted to the lord, who re-grants it to the new tenant as before in villenage. Further examination at once discloses a marked difference in kind between some classes of holdings in villenage and others. In some cases the holding handed over is simply virgates described by the one comprehensive word ' virgata Yirgiltes. (the Latin equivalent for ' yard-land '), without any further description. The ' virgate ' of A. B. is trans- ferred to C. D. in one lump ; i.e. the holding is an indivisible whole, evidently so well known as to need no description of its contents. In other cases the holding is in the same way described as a ' half -virgate,' without any details being needful as to its contents. But in the case of all other holdings the contents are described in detail half-acre by half-acre, each half- acre being identified by the names of the holders 1 See entry under 44 Ed. III. 2i The English Village Community. What is a virgate or yard-land ? Chap. ii. 0f the strips on either side of it. They vary in size from one half-acre to 8 or 10 or 12 half-acres, and in a few cases more. The greater number of them are, however, evidently the holdings of small cottier tenants. A few cases occur, but only a few, where a messuage is held without land. But the question of interest is what may be the nature of the holdings called virgates and half-vir- gates — these well-known bundles of land, which, as already said, need no description of their contents. Fortunately in one single case a virgate or yard-land — that of John Moldeson — loses its indivisible unity and is let out again by the lord to several persons in portions. These being new holdings, and no longer making up a virgate, it became needful to describe their contents on the rolls.1 Thus the details of which a virgate was made up are accidentally exposed to view. Putting the broken pieces of it together, this vir- gate of John Moldeson is found to have consisted of a messuage in the village of Shipton, in the manor of Winslow, and the following half-acre strips of land scattered all over the open fields of the manor. The vir- gate or yard-land of John Moldeson. Where situated. £ acre in Clayforlong. £ acre in Brereforlong. | acre at Anamanlond by the Icing's highway (juxta regiaru viain). £ acre at Lof thorn. 4 acre at le Wawes. h acre at Michelpeysforlong. \ acre above le Snoute. £ acre in le Snouthalc. £ acre above Livershulle. £ acre above Narowe-aldemed. Betioeen the Land of John Boveton and William Jo?iynges. Richard Lif and John Mayn. John Watehyns and John Mayn. John Hikkes and Henry Warde. Henry Warde and John Watehyns John Watehyns and John Mayn. John Watehyns and Henry Warde. John Watehyns and Henry Warde. Joint Watehyns and Henry Warde. ' Sub anno 35 Ed. III. The Winslow Manor Rolls. 25 Where situated. acre in Shiptondene. acre in Waterforough. roods below Chircheheigh. acre at Fyveacres. acre at Sherdeforlong. acre at Thorlong. acre (of pasture) in Farnhames- den. acre (of pasture) in three parcels, acre (of pasture) below Estatte- more. acre (of pasture) at Brodemore. acre (of meadow) at Iiisshemede. doles (of meadow) in Shrovedoles. acre below le Knolle. acre above Brodealdemade. acre above Brodelangelonde. acre at Merslade. acre above Langebenehullesdene. acre above Hoggestonforde. acre at Clayforde. acre at Narivelanglonde. acre at Wodexoey. acre Benethenhystrete. $ acre £ acre A acre £ acre £ acre i acre £ acre £ acre | acre & acre £ acre ^ acre £ acre ^ acre A acre | acre £ acre £ acre J acre Benethenhystrete. at Langeslo. at Loice. at Ze Knolle. above Brodealdemede. at Shortslo. at Eldeleyen. above Langeblakgrove. at Blakeputtis. above Medeforlong. at Ze Thorn. above Overlitellonde. above Ze Brodelitellonde. above Overlitellonde. above Medeforlong. at /e Thorn. at Hoggestonforde. above Eldeleyes. above Cokivell. Between the Land of John Hikkes and «/b^n Hoiveprest. John Watekyns and Jb/m Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and «7t>A« Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. Chap. IL The vir- gate or yard-land of John Moldeson, continued. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns aud Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. William Jonynges and Henry Bo- viton. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Janekyns, John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and Henry Warde. John Watekyns and John Mayn. 26 The English Village Community. Chap. II. Where situated. h acre at Brodefarnham. \ acre at Langefarnham. £ acre above Farnhamshide. \ acre at Hoiveshamme. £ acre at Stonysticch. £ acre at Coppedemore. £ acre at Brerebuttes. £ acre at Wodeforlonge. £ acre at Porteiceye. $ acre at Litebenhulle. h acre at MichUblakegrove. h acre at Litelbtakegrove. h acre at Brodereten. £ acre at Brodeliteklon. £ acre at Stoteford. £ acre at Brodelangelonde. £ acre above Litelbelesden. £ acre in Anamaneslonde. h acre at Litelpeisaere. 1 rood in /e Trendel. £ acre at Merslade. £ acre at Merslade. £ acre at Brodelitellonde. £ acre below Ze Knolle. £ acre above /e Brodealdemede. Between the Land of John Watekyns John Watekyns Henry Boveton Halle. John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns Henry Boveton Lane. John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns John Watekyns and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Richard Atti and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and John Mayn. and John Mayn. and Matthew attt and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and John Mayn. and John Mayn. and John Mayn. and John Mayn. and John Mayn. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and Henry Warde. and John Mayn. Summary Thus the virgate or yard-land of John Moldeson ofthe j / j contents of was composed of a messuage and avirgate «r >'ard- 68 half-acre strips of arable land, n " 3 rood strips of arable land, 2 doles, 1 acre of pasture, 3 half-acres of pasture, and 1 half-acre of meadow, scattered all over the open fields in their various furlongs. But it may be asked, how can it be proved that the other virgates were like the one virgate of John C . GH AH AM LT.<\ LlTH «*s, LONPOF4.S £ A NORMAL VIRGATE cmYARDLAND r. -C The Wirislow Manor Rolls. 27 Moldeson thus by chance described and exposed to Chap. ii. view on the manor rolls ? Is it right to assume that this virgate may be taken as a pattern of the rest ? The answer is, that in the description of its 72 half-acre strips the 144 neighbouring strips are incidentally in- volved. And as 66 of its strips had on one side of them 66 other strips of another tenant, viz. John Watekyns, and on the other side 43 of the next strips belonged to Henry Warde, and 23 to John Mayn, Rotation and 8 of the strips only had other neighbours, it is ordere0f evident that the virgate of John Moldeson was one of a the strIPs- system of similar virgates formed of scattered half-acre strips, arranged in a certain regular order of rotation, in which John Moldeson came 66 times next to John Watekyns, and two other neighbours followed him, one 43 and the other 23 times, in similar succession. Thus the Winslow virgates were intermixed, and a virgate each was a holding of a messuage in the village, and \IS\S *a between 30 and 40 modern acres of land, not con- ™ndle°f * 7 60 or 40 tiquous, but scattered in half-acre pieces all over the acres in /» 7 11-.0- • j • i scattered common fields. The half- virgate consisted in the same acre or way of a messuage in the village with half as many strips.Cr strips scattered over the same fields. The intermixed ownership complained of in the Inclosure Acts, and surviving in the Hitchin maps, need no longer sur- prise us. We know now what a virgate or yard-land was. The We shall find that its normal area was 30 scattered virgate acres — 10 acres in each of the three fields. Using JJ*^S# again the map of the Hitchin fields, we may mark upon it the contents of a normal virgate by way of impressing upon the eye the nature of this peculiar holding. It must always be remembered that when 28 The English Village Community . Chap. ii. the fields were divided into half-acres instead of acres the number of its scattered strips would be doubled. It is not possible to ascertain from a mere record of the changes in the holdings precisely how many of these virgates and half-virgates there were in the manor of Winslow. But in the year of the Black Death it may be assumed that the mortality fell with something like equality upon all classes of tenants, 153 changes of holding from the death of previous holders being recorded in 1348-9. Out of these, 28 were holders of virgates and 14 of half-virgates. The virgates and half-virgates of these holders who died of the Black Death must have included more than 2,400 half-acre strips in the open fields; and add- ing up the contents of the other holdings of tenants Two-thirds wh0 diec[ tnat year, it would seem that about two- of the land . . heidinvir- thirds of the whole area which changed hands in haif-vir- that memorable year were included in the virgates 84168 and half-virgates. It may be inferred, therefore, that about the same proportion of the whole area of the open fields must have been included in the virgates and half-virgates whose holders died or survived. Clearly, then, the mass of the land in the open fields was held in these two grades of holdings.1 Thus much, then, may be learned from the Win- slow manor rolls with respect to the virgates and half- They are virgates. Not only were they holdings each com- vMenage. posed of a messuage and the scattered strips belonging to it in the open fields, not only did they form the 1 The number of tenants with smaller holdings was considerably larger than the number of holders of I acreage than the other class, virgates and half-virgates, but their holdings were so small that in the aggregate they held a much smaller The Winslow Manor Rolls. 29 two chief grades of holdings with equality in each Chap. ii. grade, but also they were all alike held in villenage. They were not holdings of the lord's demesne land, but of the land in villenage. The holders, besides their virgates and half-virgates, often, it is true, held other land, part of the lord's demesne, as free tenants at an annual rent. But such free holdings were no part of their virgates. The virgates and half-virgates were held in villenage. Of these they were not free tenants, but villein tenants. So also the lesser cottage holdings were held in villenage. But the holders of virgates and half-virgates were the highest grades in the hierarchy of tenants in villenage. They not only held the greater part of the open fields in their bundles of scattered strips ; the rolls also show that they almost exclusively served as jurors in the ' Halimot,' or Court of the Manor ; though occasionally one or two other villein tenants with smaller holdings were associated with them.1 It is possible that just as villein tenants could hold The villein in free tenure land in the lord's demesne, so free men < viiiam',' might hold virgates in villenage and retain their per- tcripu ' sonal freedom ; but those at all events of the holders 9lch; 2s. 6d. 4 virgates give ;* 10s. 2 » » ii 5s. II. 709. 4 * V J) » 8s. 5 „ 1, n lis. 5d. 40 The English Village Community. Chap. II. Carucate, or land of a plough team, used instead of the hide for later taxation, and varied according to the soil. number of virgates in the hide, were not constant. Their actual contents and relations were evidently ruled by some other reason than the number of pence in a pound. A trace at least of the original reason of the vary- ing contents and relations of the hide and virgate is to be found in the Hundred Eolls, as, indeed, almost everywhere else, in the use of another word in the place of hide, when, instead of the anciently assessed hidage of a manor, its more modern actual taxable value is examined into and expressed. This new word is ' carucate ' — the land of a plough or plough team, — ' caruca ' being the mediaeval Latin term for both plough and plough team. The Hundred Eolls for Bedfordshire afford several examples in point. In some cases the carucate seems to be identical with the normal hide of 120 acres, but other instances show that the carucate varied in area.1 It is the land cultivated by a plough team ; varying in acreage, therefore, according to the light- ness or heaviness of the soil, and according to the strength of the team. V. THE HUNDRED EOLLS {continued) — THE SERVICES OF THE VILLEIN TENANTS. Services jn the Hundred Eolls for Bedfordshire and often com- , . , muted into Buckinghamshire the services of the villem tenants money payments. 1 Hundred Eolls, Beds. II. 321. Carucate of ]20 acres. 324 „ 80 „ 325 „ 100 „ 326 „ 120 „ If. 328. Caracal e of 200 acres. 329 „ 80 „ 332 „ 100 „ The Hundred Bolls. 41 are almost always commuted into money payments. Chap. ii. From each virgate a payment of from 16s. to 20s. is described as due, or services to that value (vel opera ad valorem), showing that the actual services have become the exception, and the money payments the rule. But in many cases distinguishing marks of serfdom still remained in the fine upon the marriage of a daughter, the heriot on the death of the holder, and the restraint on the sale of animals.1 In Huntingdonshire and Oxfordshire, on the other hand, the services, whilst often having their money value assigned, are mostly given in great detail, as though still frequently enforced. Speaking generally, the chief services, notwith- standing variations in detail, may be classed under three different heads. (1) There is the iveekly work at ploughing, reap- ing, carrying, usually for two or three days a week, and most at harvest-time. In other cases there are so many days' work required between certain dates. (2) There are precaria?, or ' boon-days,' some- Precaria?. times called bene works — special or extra services which the lord has a right to require, sometimes the lord providing food for the day, and sometimes the tenant providing for himself. (3) There are payments in kind or in money at Fixed dues specified times, such as Christmas, Easter, Martinmas, 0r ITS. and Michaelmas dues : churchshot, an ancient ecclesias- Of three kinds. Week work. 1 Hundred Rolls, Bedfordshire. — ' Et sunt illi villain ita servi quod non possunt maritare filias nisi ad voluntatem domini ' (II. 329). 'Nee pullos sibi pullatos mas- (II. 328). Buckinghamshire. — ' Sunt ad voluntatem domini, et ad alia iaci- enda quae ad servilem conditionem pertinent ' (II. 335-6). And so on. 42 The English Village Community . Chap. ii. tical due ; besides contributions towards the lord's taxes in the shape of tallage or scutage. Sometimes the services are to be performed with one or two labourers, showing that the cottier tenants were labourers under the holders of virgates, or indi- cating possibly in some cases the remains of a slave class. The chief weekly services were those of plough- ing, the tenants sometimes supplying oxen to the lord's plough team, sometimes using their own ploughs, two or more joining their oxen for the purpose. This co-operation is a marked feature of the services, and is found also in connexion with reaping and carrying. The cottier tenants in respect of their smaller holdings often worked for their lord one day a week, and having no plough, or oxen, their services did not include ploughing. Annexed are typical instances of the services of both classes of tenants. They are taken from three counties, and placed side by side for comparison. EXAMPLES OF VILLEIN SERVICES. Oxfordshire HUNTINGDON.-IIIRE Cambridgeshire Of a Villanus holding a Virgate} A. B. holds a virgate, and owes — 82 days' work [about 8. d. 2 days a week] be- tween Michaelmas and June 24, valued at $d. = . .35 1 1 ^ days' work [rather more than 2 days a week] be- Of a Villanus holding a Virgate? A. B. holds 1 virgate in villenage — By paying \2d. at Michaelmas. By doing works from Michaelmas to Eas- ter, with the excep- tion of the fortnight after Christmas, viz. 2 days each week, Of a Villanus holding £ Virgate of 15 acres.3 A. B. holds a & virgate of cus- tomable land containing 15 acres, and does 3 days' work each week throughout the year, and 3 precarise, with 1 II. 744 b. 2 II. G42o. 3 II 5546. The Hundred Rolls. 43 Examples of Villein Services — continued. Chap. II. Oxfordshire Of a Villanus holding a Virgate. tween June 24 and s. d. August 1, valued at Id. = . . 1H 19 days' work [2| days a week] be- tween August 1 and Michaelmas, valued at l±d. = . 2 4i 6 precariae, with one man, valued at . 12 1 precaria, with 2 men, for reaping, with food from the lord, valued at . 2 Half a carriage for carrying the wheat 1 Half a carriage for the hay . . 1 The ploughing and harrowing of an acre ... 6 1 ploughing called 1 graserthe'' . . 1A 1 day's harrowing of oat[land] . . 1 1 horse [load] of wood ... A Making 1 quarter of malt, and drying it 1 1 day's work at wash- ing and shearing sheep, valued at . \ 1 day's hoeing . . \ 3 days' mowing . 6 1 day's nutting . \ 1 day's work in carry- ing to the stack . \ Tallage once a year at the lord's will. HUNTINi:l)ONSHIKK Of a Villanus holding a Virgate. with one man each day. Item, he shall plough with his own plough one selion and a hall on every Friday in the aforesaid time. Item, he shall harrow the same day as much as he has ploughed. He shall do works from Easter to Pen- tecost, 2 days each week, with one man each day. And he shall plough one selion each Fri- day in the same time. He shall do works from Pentecost till August 1, for 3 days each week, with one man each day, either hoeing the corn, or mowing and lifting (levand). He shall do works from August 1 till September 8, for 3 days each week, with two men each day. He shall make 1 ' love- bonum ' with all his family except his wife, finding his own food. And from September 8 to Michaelmas he works 3 days each week, with one man each day. He shall carry [with a horso or horses] as far as Bolnhurst, and from Holnhurst to Torneye. Cambkiik;i ■shirk Of a Villanus holding £ Virgate of 15 acres. meals found by the lord, and gives at Martin- mas Id., and a hen at Christ- mas, and 8 eggs at Easter ; and the same works and customs if ' adfirmam ' are valued at 9s. per annum. (20 others each hold 15 acres with like ser- vices.) Chap. II. 44 The English Village Community. Examples of Villein Services — continued. OXFORDSHIRE Of a Cotarius.1 A. B. holds one croft, and owes from .Michaelmas to -f 1, each workable week, one day's work of what- ever kind the lord requires. Huntingdon-shire Cambrtogeshibb Of a VUlanns holding a Virgate. Also he gives £ bushel of corn as ' bensed ' in winter-time. Also 10 bushels of oats at Martinmas as ' fodderkorn? Also Id. as ' loksiherj that is for 2d. a loaf, and 5 hens. Also Id. on Ash- Wed- nesday, as 'Jispeni ' (fishpenny), lso~~ Also 10 eggs on St. Botolph's Day (June 17). Also in Easter week 2d. towards digging the vineyard. Also in Pentecost week Id. towards uphold- ing the mill-dam (stagnum) of Newe- tone. If he sell a bull calf he shall give the lord abbot 4rf., and this according to custom. He gives ' merchetum ' and ' herietum,' and is tallaged at Mi- chaelmas according to the will of the said abbot. He gives 2d. as ' sumetcode silver ' at Christmas. Of a Cotarius.2 A. B. holds 1 acre at 12(7., and works 4 days in autumn with one man. Heia tallaged ' quando Of a Cotarius.3 A. B. is a cota- rius, and holds 1 cottage and 1 acre, for which he gives — 1 II. 758 a. 2 II. 613 b. 3 II. 535 b. The lluinlrril Rolls. 45 Examples of Villein Services —com Chap. U. Oxfordshire Hi NTlNcnoNSHIRE OAMBMDS] Of a Cotarius. At Martinmas gives 1 cock and 3 hens for churchshot, and ought to drive to certain places, and to carry writs.1 his foo 1 being found by the lord; also to wash and shear sheep, receiving a loaf and a half, and being partaker of the cheese with the servi; and to hoe. In the autumn, to work and receive like as each servus works and re- ceives for the whole week.2 (10 cottiers do like ser- vices). Of a Cotarius. Hex talliat burgos SUOS.' lie gives ' gar shaves' each year for pigs killed and sold, viz. for a pig a vear old, And when there is pannage in the lord' wood he gives for apigofayearold. Yd. And if he keeps his pigs alive beyond a year, he gives nothing. Of a Cotariu •. 1 day's work on Monday in every week un- less a festival prevents him. 1 hen at Christmas. 5 eggs at Easter. VI. DESCRIPTION IN FLETA OF A MANOR IN THE TIME OF EDWARD I. Contemporary in date with the Hundred Eolls is the anonymous work bearing the title of ' Fleta,' which may be described as the vade mecum of the landlords of the time of Edward I. It was designed to put them in possession of necessary legal knowledge ; and mixed up with this are practical directions regarding the management of their estates. The writer advises Landlords landlords on taking possession of their manors to have ™n0° a a survey made of their property, so that they may know the extent of their rights and income. If in the Hundred Rolls we have photographic, details of hundreds of individual manors surveyed 1 In another manor in Hunt- 1 2 The Latin text is badly ingdonshire certain cottiers ought printed here, but the original has to make summonses. II. 616. I been inspected. 46 The English Village Community . Chap. ii. for purposes of royal taxation, so here is a picture of an ordinary or typical manor — a generalisation of the ordinary features of a manor — drawn by a contemporary hand, and regarding all things from a landlord's point of view. The manor as described in Fleta is a territorial unit, with its own courts and local customs known only on the spot. Therefore the extent is to be taken upon the testimony of ' faithful and sworn tenants of the lord.' And inquiry is to be made l — Survey of h. manor. Free tenants. (1) Of castles and buildings in the demesne (intrinsecis) within and without the moat, with gardens, curtilages, dovecotes, fish- ponds, &c. (2) What fields (camjn) and culture there are in demesne, and how many acres of arable in each cultura of meadow and of pasture. (3) What common pasture there is outside the demesne (forinseca), and what beasts the lord can place thereon [he, like his tenants, being as to this limited in his rights by custom]. (4) Of parks and demesne woods, which the lord at his will can culti- vate and reclaim (assartare). (5) Of woods outside the demesne (forinsecis), in which others have common rights, how much the lord may approve. (6) Of pannage, herbage, and honey, and all other issues of the forests, woods, moors, heaths, and wastes. (7) Of mills [belonging to the lord, and having a monopoly of grinding for the tenants at fixed charges], fishponds, rivers (ripariis), and fisheries several and common. (8) Of pleas and perquisites belonging to the county, manor, and forest courts. (9) Of churches belonging to the lord's advowson. (10) Of heriots, fairs, markets, tolls, day-works (operationes), services, foreign (forinseci) customs, and gifts (exhenniis). (11) Of warrens, liberties, parks, coneyburrows, wardships, reliefs, and yearly fees. Then regarding the tenants, — (1) De libere tenentibus, or free tenants, how many are intrinscci and how many forinseci; what lands they hold of the lord, and 1 Fleta, lib. 2, c. 71. Compare also ' Extenta Manerii :' Statutes of the Realm, i. p. 242. Fleta. 47 what of others, and by what service ; whether by socage, or by ^HAP- "< military service, or by fee farm, or ' in eleemosynam ' ; who hold by charter, and who not ; what rents they pay ; which of them do suit at the lord's court, &c. ; and wliat accrues to the lord at their death. (2) De custnmariis, or villein tenants ; how many there are, and what Villein is their suit; how much each has, and what it is worth, both tenants de antiquo dominico and de novo perquisito ; to what amount they can be tallaged without reducing them to poverty and ruin; what is the value of their ' opcrationes'1 and ' consuetudines'' — their day-works and customary duties — and what rent they pay; and which of them can be tallaged ' ratione sanguinis nativi,'1 and who not. Then there follows a statement of the duties of officers, the usual officials of the manor. First there is the seneschal,1 or steward, whose The sene- duty it is to hold the Manor Courts and the View of steward"; Frankpledge, and there to inquire if there be any withdrawals of customs, services, and rents, or of suits to the lord's courts, markets, and mills, and as to alienations of lands. He is also to check the amount of seed required by the propositus for each manor, for under the seneschal there may be several manors. On his appointment he must make himself ac- quainted with the condition of the manorial ploughs and plough teams. He must see that the land is pro- who ar- perly arranged, whether on the three-field or the two- ploughing field svstem. If it be divided into three parts, 180 H"dt^ J * plough acres should go to each carucate, viz. 60 acres to be teams- ploughed in winter, 60 in Lent, and 60 in summer for fallow. If in two parts, there should be 160 acres to the carucate, half for fallow, half for winter and Lent sowing, i.e. 80 acres in each of the two ' fields.' 1 Fleta, lib. 2, c. 72. 48 The English Village Community Chap. ii. Besides the manorial ploughs and plough teams he must know also how many tenant or villein ploughs (carucce adjutrices) there are, and how often they are bound to aid the lord in each manor. He is also to inquire as to the stock in each manor, whereof an inventory indented is to be drawn up between him and the serjeant ; and as to any deficiency of beasts, which he is at once to make good with the lord's consent. The seneschal thus had jurisdiction over all the 2SET manors of the lord. But each single manor should have its own propositus. The best husbandman is to be elected by the vil- lata, or body of tenants, as propositus, and he is to be responsible for the cultivation of the arable land. He must see that the ploughs are yoked early in the morning — both the demesne and the villein ploughs — and that the land is properly ploughed (pure et con- junctim) and sown. He is a villein tenant, and acts on behalf of the villeins, but he is overlooked by the lord's bailiff. The bailiff. The bailiff's1 duties are stated to be — To rise early and have the ploughs yoked, then walk in the fields to see that all is right. He is to inspect the ploughs, whether those of the demesne or the villein or auxiliary ploughs, seeing that they be not un- yoked before their day's work ends, failing which lie will be called to account. At sowing-time the bailiff', propositus, and reaper must go with the ploughs through the whole day's work until they have com- pleted their proper quantity of ploughing for the day, 1 Flela, lib. 2. c. 73. Battle Abbey and St. Pmtl's. 49 which is to be measured, and if the ploughmen have Chap.il made any errors or defaults, and can make no ex- cuses, the reaper is to see that such faults do not go uncorrected and unpunished. Such is the picture, given by Fleta, of the manorial machine at work grinding through its daily labour on the days set apart for service on the lord's demesne. The other side of the picture, the work of the villani for themselves on other days, the yoking of their oxen in the common plough team, and the ploughing and sowing of their own scattered strips ; whether this was arranged with equal regard to rigid custom, or whether in Fleta's time the co-opera- tion had become to some extent broken up, so that each villein tenant made his own arrangements by contract with his fellows, or otherwise — this inferior side of the picture is left undrawn. In the meantime, returning to the question of the holdings in villenage, an additional reason for the variations in their acreage is found in the statement already alluded to, viz. that the extent of the actual carucate, or land of one plough team, was dependent, among other things, upon whether the system of husbandry was the two-field or the three-field system, each plough team being able to cultivate a larger acreage on the former than on the latter system. vii. s.e. of england — the hide and vlrgate under other names (the records of battle abbey and st. paul's). Passing now to the south-eastern counties, there Battle are in the Eecord Office valuable MSS. relating to the jv. 50 The English Village Community. Surveys of 1284-7. Chap. ti. estates of Battle Abbey.1 There are two distinct surveys of these estates, made respectively in the reigns of Edward I. and Henry VI. The date of the earliest MS. is from 12 to 15 Edward I. (1284-7). It is, therefore, almost contem- poraneous with the Hundred Eolls. The estates lay in various counties ; but wherever situated, the same general phenomena as those already described are found. Confining attention to the regular grades of hold- ings in villenage, the following are examples from the Battle Abbey estates. The abbot had an estate at Brichwolton (or Brightwalton), in Berkshire. In the survey of it 10 holders of a virgate each are recorded as virgarii, and in the MS. of Henry VI., 5 holders of half- virgates are in the same way called dimidii virgarii. There was another estate at ' Apeldreham,' in Sussex. Here, under the heading ' Isti subscripti dicuntur Yherdlinges,' there is a list of 5 holders of virgates, 4 holders of 1|> virgates each, and one of h a virgate. At ' Alsiston,' in Sussex, a manor nestling under the chalk downs, the holdings were as follows : — i hides and wistas. 1 wista and 1 great wista. £ hide. 1 hide. £ hide and 1 wista. 3 wistas and 1 great wista. £ hide. i hide. £ hide. J hide. 1 wista. £ hide. £ hide. \ hide. 1 wista. \ hide. The propositus 1 wista (without services). 1 Augmentation Office, Miscellaneous Books, Nos. 56 and 57. Battle Abbey and St. Paul's. 51 In the description of the services, those for each half-hide are first given, and then there follows a note that each half-hide contains two wistas ; wherefore the services of each wista are half those above mentioned. There is another manor (Blechinton, near the coast), where there were— 2 holdings of half-hides, 9 of wistas, 6 of half-wi9tas, and two other manors where the holders were in one case 5, all of half-hides ; and in the other case one of a hide and 4 of half-hides. These are valuable examples of hides and half-hides, as still actual holdings in villenage, whilst apparently instead of virgates in some of these Sussex manors a new holding — the wista — occurs. And among the documents of Battle Abbey given by Dugdale there is the following statement, viz., that 8 virgates = 1 hide, and 4 virgates = 1 wista (great wista?). Sup- posing the virgate here, as mostly elsewhere, to have been, normally, a bundle of 30 acres, it is clear that in this hide of 8 virgates we get another instance of the double hide of 240 acres; whilst the 'great The double wista ' of 4 virgates would correspond with the single 24oeacres. hide of 120 acres, and the wista would equal the ordi- nary half-hide of two virgates. We pass to another cartulary, and of earlier date. Domesday In 1222 a visitation was made of the manors belong- paufSiAiI), ing to the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's, London. 1222- The register of this visitation is known as the ' Domes- day of St. Paul's.' l The manors were scattered in 1 The Domesday of St. Paul's, edited by Archdeacon Hale, Camden Society, 1858. e 2 52 The English Village Community. CnAP. ii. Herts, Essex, Middlesex, and Surrey — all south-east- ern counties. In the survey of Thorp,1 one of the manors in Essex, after a list of tenants on the demesne land, and others on reclaimed land (de essarto), there follows a list of tenants in villenage who are called hy davit. As in the Battle Abbey records the virgarii were holders of virgates, so these hydarii were probably, as their name implies, groups of villani holding a hide. But the holdings had in fact become subdivided and irregular. Nevertheless, those belonging to each original hide are bracketed together ; and adding together their acreage, it appears that the hide is assumed to contain 120 acres. The following examples will make it clear that the holdings were once hides of four virgates of 30 acres each. Hides and virgates. Moldings. = 30n. = 30 a. = 60 a. = 30«."> = 30 a xx. a. x. a. xxx. a. \ hide xxx. a. xxx. a. xv. a. } _ xv. a [ v. a V. a vii.i a v. a, vii.£ a. I And so on = hide of 120 acres. 30 a. = 30 a. y. -- hide of 1 20 acres. The services also were reckoned by the hide, and from which it will an abstract of them is here given Services reckoned by the hide. be seen that for some purposes the tenants of the now divided hide still clubbed as it were together to Pp. 38 ct seq. Battle Abbey and St. Paul's. 53 perform the services required for the hide ; whilst for Chap. ii. others ' each homestead (domus) of the hide ' had its separate duties to perform. The following were the services on the manor of Thorp : 1— Each of the hidarii ought to plough 8 acres, 4 in winter and 4 in Lent. Also to harrow and sow with the lord's seed. After Pentecost each house (domus) of the hide has to hoe thrice. And to reap 4 acres, 2 of rye (siligine), and 2 of barley and oats. And find a waggon (carrwn) with 2 men to carry the hard grain, and another to carry the soft grain ; and each waggon (plaust?-um) shall have 1 sheaf. Each house of the hide has to mow 3 half-acres. Each house of the hide has to provide a man to reap until the third [day], if aught remains. Each house of the hide and of the demesne allotted to tenants has to provide the strongest man whom it has for the lord's l precaricc ' in autumn, the lord providing him meals twice a day. All men, both of the hide and of the demense, have to provide their own ploughs for the lord's ' precaries/ the lord providing their meals. And each hide ought to thresh out seed for the sowing of 4 acres after Michaelmas Day. Each hide must thresh out so much seed as will suffice for the land ploughed by one team in winter and in Lent. Each house of the whole village owes a hen at Christmas and eggs at Easter. These 10 hides oueht to repair and keep in repair these houses in the demesne, viz. the Grange, cowhouse, and threshing house. Each of these hidarii owes 2 doddce of oats in the middle of March. And 14 loaves for ' mescinga ' (?). And a ' companagium ' (flesh, fish, or cheese). Each hide owes 5s. by the year, and ought to make of the lord's wood 4 hurdles of rods for the fold. The instance of another manor of St. Paul's (Tillingham), in Essex,2 may be cited as further evi- dence that sometimes, even where the holdings (as at Winslow) were virgates and half-virgates, their original relation to the hide was not yet forgotten. For after giving the list of tenants in demesne, and of 19 1 P. 42. 8 P. 64. 54 The English Village Community. Chap. ii. tenants holding 30 acres each, who ' faciunt magnas operationes,' i.e. do full service, there is a statement that in this manor 30 acres make a virgate, and 120 acres a hide ; l so that here also there are 4 virgates to the hide. But there was further in this manor a double Soianda,oi hide, called a ' solanda,' 2 presumably of 240 acres. hide. A double hide called a solanda is also mentioned in Sutton in Middlesex,3 and another in Drayton ; 4 and the term solanda is probably the same as the well-known ' sulking ' or ' solin ' of Kent, meaning a c plough land.' It will be remembered that in the Huntingdon- shire Hundred Eolls a double hide of 240 acres was noticed. The It may also be mentioned that in Kent5 the division suiiungs of the sullung, or hide, was called a yoke, instead of yo a yard-land or virgate ; suggesting that the divisions of the plough land in some way corresponded with the yokes of oxen in the team. On the whole little substantial difference appears between the grades of holdings in the south-east of England and those of the midland counties. We may add also that here, as elsewhere, the humbler class of cottier tenants are found beneath the regular holders of hides and virgates, and that on the demesne lands there appears the constantly increasing class of libere tenentes. Also passing from the holdings in villen- age to the serfdom under which they were held, of a ' solanda qua? per 66 habet duashidas' (p. !>:;). 4 Draitone, 'cum una hida de solande ' (p. 99). 5 For the sullung of Kent, see Mr. Elton's Tenures of Kent. 1 ' In manerio isto sexcies xx. acre faciunt hidam, et xxx. acre faciunt virgatam ' (p. G4). 2 ' Cum vi. hidis trium solan- darum' (p. 58). 3 Sutton, where mention is made Gloucester and Worcester Records. 55 and speaking generally, the description obtained from Chap. 11 the Hundred Rolls of the services might with little variation be applied to the different area embraced in this section. VIII. THE RELATION OF THE VIRGATE TO THE HIDE TRACED IN THE CARTULARIES OP GLOUCESTER AND WORCESTER ABBEYS, AND THE CUSTUMAL OP BLEADON, IN SOMERSETSHIRE. Further facts relating to the hide and the virgate are elicited by extending the inquiry into the west of England. Turning to the cartulary of the monastery of St. Peter at Gloucester,1 there are several ' extents ' Gloucester surveys of of manors in the west of England of about the year 1266. 1266, which give valuable evidence, not only of the existence of the open fields divided into three fields or seasons, furlongs, and half-acre strips, but also as re- gards the holdings. The virgates in this district varied in acreage, some containing 48 acres, others 40, 38, 36, and 28 acres respectively.2 In one case it is inciden- tally mentioned that 4 virgates make a hide.3 We have thus in these extents evidence both of the pre- valence and of the varying acreage of the virgate in the extreme west of England, to add to the evidence already obtained in respect of the midland counties. So also the register of the Priory of St. Mary, Worcester Worcester,4 dated 1240, affords still earlier evidence 1240. for the west of England of a similar kind. 1 Published in the Rolls Series. 2 iii. p. cix. 3 iii. p. 55. ' Quatuor virgatte terroe continentes unam hidain.' 4 Edited by Archdeacon Hale, in the Oamden Society's Series, 18G5. 56 The English Village Community. Chap. II. In the first manor mentioned therein the customary services of the villeins are described as pertaining to each pair of half-virgates, i.e. to each original virgate.1 In the next manor there were 35 holdings in half-vir- gates, and so in other manors.2 It is sometimes men- tioned how many acres in each field belong to the several half-virgates, thus showing not only the division of the fields into seasons, but the scattered contents of the holdings. Finally, with local variations serfdom in these two western counties was almost identical with that in other parts of England. Two examples of the services of holders of vir- gates and half-virgates respectively are appended as before for comparison with others, and also examples of the services of cottier tenants. The list given in the note below of the 4 common customs ' of the villein tenants of one of the manors of Worcester Priory, describes some of the more general incidents of villenage, and shows how thorough a serfdom it originally was.3 1 P. 10 b. a P. 14 b. 3 Worcester Cartulary, p. 15 a. Of the common customs of the vil- leins on the manor of Newenham — to give ' Thac ' on Martinmas Day ; for pigs ahove a year old (sows excepted), \d., and for pigs not ahove a year, hd. ; to sell neither ox nor horse without licence; to give Id. toll on selling an ox or horse ; also ' aid ' and ' leyrwite ' (fine for a daughter's incontinence) ; to redeem his sons, if they leave the laud ; to pay ' germma ' for Ins daughters ; no one to leave the land, nor to make his son a clerk, without licence ; natives coming of age, unless they directly serve their father or mother, to perform 3 ' berv- ripee'\ and 'forinseci' (i.e. villeins not horn in the manor) shall do likewise ; to carry at the summons of the ' servient ' (hailiff or Ser- jeant) besides the worjt : and if he carry 'ex necessit'ite,"1 to be quit of [a day's] work ; to give at death his best chattel (eatallum) ; the suc- cessor to make a fine, as he can ; the widow to stay on the laud as Gloucester and Worcester Records. 57 To this evidence from the counties of Worcester C"AP- n- and Gloucester we may add the evidence of the Cus- Custumai tumal of Bleadon, in Somersetshire, also dating from inSomer- the thirteenth century. 8etshire- The manor belonged to the Prior of St. Swithin, at Winchester. There were very few libere tenentes. The tenants in villenage werevirgarii, or holders of virgates, and dimidii-virgarii, or holders of half-virgates. There were also holders of fardels or quarter-virgates, and half-fardels, or one-eighth-virgates, and other small cottier tenants. Four virgates went to the hide. And the services were very similar to those of the Gloucester and Worcester tenants. They are de- scribed at too great length to be inserted here. We may, however, notice the importance amongst other items of the carrying service or averagium — a service often mentioned among villein services, but here defined with more than usual exactness.1 In short, without going further into details, it is obvious that the open field system and the serfdom which lived within it were practically the same in their general features in the west and in the east of England. The following are the examples of the services in Gloucestershire and Worcestershire : — long as she continues the service ; all to attend their own mill ; ' Cot- manni ' to guard and take prisoners [to jail]. 1 ' Et idem faciet averagium apud BristolT et apud Wellias per totum annum, et apud Pridie, et post hokeday apud Bruggewauter, cum affro suo ducente bladum domini, caseum, et lauam, et cetera omnia quae sibi serviens prnecipere voluerit, et habebit unam quadrantem et dayuam suam quietam. Et debet facere averagium apud Axebrugge et ad navem quotiens dominus voluerit, et nichil habebit propter idem averagium.' — Proceedings of Archaeological Institute, Salisbury, p. 203. App. to Notice of the Cus- tumai of Bleadon, pp. LS-J-l'IO. 58 The English Village Community. VILLEIN SERVICES. Gloucestershire Worcestershire Services of a Virgate.1 Services of a Half-virgate? A. B. holds 1 virgate of 8. d. Of the villenage of Neweham, 48 acres (in the manor with appurtenances (or mem- of Hartpury), with mes- bers), and of the villeins' works suage, and 6 acres of and customs. meadow land. In this manor are 35 half-vir- From Michaelmas till Au- gates with appurtenances, ex- gust 1 he has to plough clusive of the half-virgate be- one day a week, each longing to the ' propositus? day's work being valued Each half-virgate ad censum pays at . 3£ on St. Andrew's Day \2d. And to do manual labour (November 30) ; on Annun- 3 days a week, each day's ciation Day, \2d. (March 25) ; work being valued at . \ on St. John's Day, \2d. (June On the 4th day to carry 24). horse - loads (swnma- From June 24 till August 1, giare), if necessary, each villein to work 2 days a to Preston and other week, and, if the serjeant (ser- manors, and Gloucester, viens) shall so will, to continue each day's wot»k being the same work till after Au- valued at . .1 gust 1. Once a year to carry to From August 1 to Michaelmas — Wick, valued at . .3 To work 4 days a week. To plough one acre called To do 2 ' benripce ' (reapings at ' Eadacre? 2 and to thresh request), with 1 man. the seed for the said To plough about Michaelmas acre, the ploughing and a half-acre, to sow it with threshing being valued at 4 his own corn, and to har- To do the ploughing called row it. ' beneherthe ' with one Also to plough for winter corn, meal from the lord, spring corn, and fallowing, for valued ultra cibum at . 1 1 day, exclusive of the work, To mow the lord's meadow and it is called 'benhcrthe.' for 5 days, and more if To give on February 2 one necessary, each day's quarter of oats, and 2§d. as work being valued ultra Jisfe ' (fish-fee). opus manuale at . .1 To hoe as [one day's] work after To lift the lord's hay for June 24. 5 days .... 2^ All to mow as [one day's] work, To hoe the lord's corn for and each to receive on mowing one day (besides the day as much grass as lie can customary labour), with lift with his scythe, and if his one man, valued at . A scythe break he shall lose his To do 1 ' bederipa ' before grass and be amerced. autumn with 1 man, All to receive Gel. for drink. valued at . . 1£ 1 Gloucester Cartulary, vol. iii. p. 78. 2 'JRadacre1 in other places, pp. 80, 116. 3 Worcester Cartulary,]). 14 b. Gloucester and Worcester Records. 59 Villein Services— continued. Gloucestershire Services of a Virgate. To work in the lord's har- s. d. vest 5 days a week with 2 men, from August 1 to Michaelmas, valued per week at . . .13 To do 1 ' hederipa] called ' bondenebedripaj with 4 men, valued at .6 To do 1 harrowing a year, called ' londegginge,' valued at . . . 1 To give at Michaelmas an aid of . , . .33 To [pay] ' pannage] viz. for a pig of a year old . 1 For a younger pig that can be separated ^ If he brew for sale, to give 1 4 gallons of ale as toll. To sell neither horse nor ox without licence. Seller and buyer to give 4d. as toll for a horse sold within the manor. To redeem son and daughter at the will of the lord. If he die, the lord to have his best beast of burden as heriot, and of his widow likewise, if she outlive her husband. Services of a Lundinarius.1 A. B. holds one ' lundi- narium ' (in the manor of Highnam), to wit, a messuage with curtilage, 4 acres of land, and a half-acre of meadow, and has to work one day a week (probably Mon- day, Lunse-dies, Lundi, whence the title of the holding), from Michael- mas to August 1, and each day's work is vil lei at Worcestershire Services of a Half-virgate. In this manor 8 gallons of beer are given as toll, besides the toll of the mills. Each half-virgate, if ad opera- tionem, from Michaelmas till August 1, to work 2 days a week. To plough and sow with its own corn half an acre, and to harrow the same. To plough and harrow one day in winter, and the prior to provide the seed; and, if necessary, each virgate to harrow as [a day's work] till ploughing time. To plough one day in spring. And to plough for fallowing for 1 day (warrectare) as above. Services of a Cottarius!1 In the manor of Neweham are 10 cottiers (omitting William the miller and Adam de Newe- ham), each holding 1 mes- suage with appurtenances, and 6 acres. [If ad opcrationem] each to work 2 days a week (excepting Easter, Pentecost, and Christ- mas weeks). To drive, take messages, and bear loads. To give 'thac,'1 thol/ aid, and such like. 1 Gloucester Cartulary, vol. iii. p. 118. Worcester Cartulary, p. 15 «. 60 The English Village Community. Villein Services — continued. Gloucestershire WORCESTERSII IRE Services of a Lundinarius. Services of a Cottarius. To mow the lord's ruea- s d. But they give neither oats dow for 4 days if neces- nor 'Jisfe.'1 sary, and a day's mow- If ' ad jirmamf to render at ing is valued at 2 each quarter-day (terminum) To aid in cocking1 and 6d. lifting- the hay for 6 days • ' least, and the day's work is valued at . i. To hoe the lord's corn for 1 day, valued at 2 To do 2 ' bederipae ' before August 1, valued at 2 From August 1 to Mi- chaelmas to do manual labour 2 days a week, and each day's work is valued at 1£ To gather rushes on August 1, valued at JL 2 And in all other ' condi- tions ' he shall do as the customers. The total value of the ser- vice of a 'lundinarius' is 6 8 To give Ad. as aid at Mi- chaelmas. (15 other ' lundinarii ' hold on a like tenure.) IX. CARTULARIES OF NEWMINSTER AND KELSO (XIII. CENTURY) — THE CONNEXION OF THE HOLDINGS WITH THE COMMON PLOUGH TEAM OF EIGHT OXEN. Passing to the north of England, substantially the same system is found, along with customs and details which still further connect the gradations of the holdings in villenage with the plough team and the yokes of oxen of which it was composed. North of the Tees, in the district of the old North- umbria, virgates and half-virgates were still the Newminster and Kelso Records. Gl usual holdings, but they were called ' husband-lands.' Chap- n- The full husband-land, or virgate, was composed of Novates or two bovates, or oxgangs, the bovate or oxgang being thus the eighth of the hide or carucate. In the cartulary of Newminster,1 under date 1250, amongst charters giving evidence of the division of the fields into ' seliones,' or strips,2 the holdings of which were scattered over the fields,3 as everywhere else, is a grant of land to the abbey containing 8 bovates in all, made up of 4 equal holdings of two bovates each. In the ' Rotulus Reditwim ' of the Abbey of Kelso, Husband dated 1290,4 the holdings were ' husband-lands.' In [™*ao{ one place 5 — Selkirk — there were 15 husband-lands, b°vates. each containing a bovate. In another G — Bolden — the record of which, with the services of the husband- lands, is referred to several times in the document as typical of the rest, there were 28 husband-lands, owing equal payments and services. The contents are not given, but as the services evidently are doubles of those of Selkirk, it may be inferred that the husband-lands each contained 2 bovates {i.e. a virgate), and that so did the usual husband-lands of the Kelso estates. This inference is confirmed by the record for the manor of Eeveden, which states that the monks had there 8 husband-lands,7 from each of which were due the services set out at length at the end of this section ; and then goes on to say that formerly each ' husband ' took with his ' land ' his l^^ stuht, viz. 2 oxen, 1 horse, 3 chalders of oats, 6 bolls two oxen. 1 Surtees Society, p. 57. : Club, 1846. 2 p. 57. . s p 59_ s Vol. ii. p. 462. 4 Published by the Baunatsue I 6 P. 461. 7 P. 455 62 The English Village Community. Chap. ii. of barley, and 3 of wheat. ' But when Abbot Richard commuted that service into money, then they returned their stuht, and paid each for his husband-land 18s. per annum.' The allotment of 2 oxen as stuht, or outfit, to the husband-land evidently corresponds with its contents as two bovates. If the holding of 2 bovates was equivalent to the virgate, and the bovate to the half-virgate or one-eighth of the hide, then the hide should con- tain 8 bovates or oxgangs ; and as the single oxgang had relation to the single ox, and the virgate or ' two bovates ' to the pair of oxen allotted to it by way of ' stuht,' or outfit, so the hide ought to have a similar relation to a team of 8 oxen. Thus, if the full team of 8 oxen can be shown to be the normal plough team, a very natural relation would be suggested between the gradations of holdings in villenage, and tne number of oxen contributed by the holders of them to the full plough team of the manorial plough. And, in fact, there is ample evidence that it was so. Full caruca In the Kelso records there is mention of a ' caru- t°eram°ofgh cate>' or ' plough-land ' l (' plough ' being in these re- eight oxen, cords rendered by ' caruca ') ; and this plough-land turns out, upon examination, to contain 4 husband- lands i.e. presumably 8 bovates. Further, among the ' Ancient Acts of the Scotch Parliament ' there is an early statute 2 headed ' Of Landmen telande with Pluche,' which ordains that ' ilk man teland with a pluche of viii. oxin ' shall sow at the least so much wheat, &c. : showing that the team of 8 oxen was the normal plough team in Scotland. 1 P. 361 9 P. 18. Newminster and Kelso Records. 63 Chap. II. Again, among the fragments printed under the head- ing of ' Ancient Scotch Laws and Customs,' without date, occurs the following record :l — ' In the first time that the law was made and or- * dained they began at the freedom of " halikirk," * and since, at the measuring of lands, the " plew-land " 1 they ordained to contain viii. oxingang, &c.' Even so late as the beginning of the present cen- tury, we learn from the old ' Statistical Account of Scotland' that in many districts the old-fashioned ploughs were of such great weight that they re- quired 8, 10, and sometimes 12 oxen to draw them.2 Information from the same source also explains the use of the word ' caruca ' for plough. For the construction of the word involves not 4 yoke of oxen, but 4 oxen yoked abreast, as are the horses in F^erdoxen the caruca so often seen upon Eoman coins. And the abreast. ' Statistical Account ' informs us that in some dis- tricts of Scotland in former times ' the ploughs were * drawn by 4 oxen or horses yoked abreast : one trod ' constantly upon the tilled surface, another went in ' the furrow, and two upon the stubble or white land. ' The driver walked backwards holding his cattle by ' halters, and taking care that each beast had its equal * share in the draught. This, though it looked awk- 1 ward, was contended to be the only mode of yoking * by which 4 animals could best be compelled to exert ' all their strength.'3 The ancient Welsh laws, as we shall see by-and- So also in Wales. by, also speak of the normal plough team as consist- ing from time immemorial, throughout Wales, of 8 1 Acts of Parliament of Scot- I 9 Analysis, p. 232. land, App. V. p. 387. I s Id. p. 232. 64 The English Village Community. Chap ii. oxen yoked 4 to a yoke. The team of 8 oxen seems further to have been the normal manorial plough team throughout England, though in some districts still larger teams were needful when the land was heavy clay. In the ' Inquisition of the Manors of St. Paul's ' : it is stated of the demesne land of a manor in Hert- fordshire, that the ploughing could be done with two plough teams (carucce), of 8 head each. And in another case in the same county ' with 2 plough 'teams of 8 heads, "cum consuetudinibus villatas" « — with the customary services of the villein tenants.'2 In another, ' with 5 ploughs, of winch 3 have 4 oxen 1 and 4 horses, and 2 each 6 horses.' In another, ' with 3 ploughs of 8 heads.' In manors in Essex, on the other hand, where the land is heavier, there are the following instances : 3 — 4 plough teams. , 10 in each. 9 n 8 „ 1 „ team, 10. 3 „ teams , 8 oxen and 2 horses. 2 „ i> 10 oxen and 10 horses for the two, 2 „ )> 12 oxen and 8 horses the two. 2 „ JJ 4 horses and 4 oxen in each. 2 „ It 10 each. 1 „ team, 6 horses and 4 oxen. In two manors in Middlesex the teams were as under : 4 — 1 of 8 heads. 2 of 8 oxen and 2 horses. 1 Domesday of St. Paul's, p. 1. a Id. pp. 28, 33, 48, 53, 86. 2 Id. p. 7. I . * Id. pp.09, 104. Newminster and Kelso Records. 65 In the Gloucester cartulary l there are the follow- Chap- il j.ng instances : — To each plough team 8 oxen and 4 over. » >f 12 „ 1 „ » ft L" » 1 » All these instances are from documents of the Normal thirteenth century, and they conspire in confirming plough the point that the normal plough team was, by general eight oxen, consent, of 8 oxen ; though some heavier lands re- quired 10 or 12, and sometimes horses in aid of the oxen. Nor do these exceptions at all clash with the hypothesis of the connexion of the grades of holdings with the number of oxen contributed by the holders to the manorial plough team of their village ; for as the number of oxen in the team sometimes varied from the normal standard, so also did the number of virgates in the hide or carucate. So that, summing up the evidence of this chapter, daylight seems to have dawned upon the meaning of the interesting gradation of holdings in villenage in the open fields. The hide or carucate seems to be Connexion the holding corresponding with the possession of a Jje ^oxen full plough team of 8 oxen. The half-hide corre- and the r o holdings. sponds with the possession of one of the 2 yokes of 4 abreast ; the virgate with the possession of a pair of oxen, and the half-virgate or bovate with the possession of a single ox ; all having their fixed rela- tions to the full manorial plough team of 8 oxen. And this conclusion receives graphic illustration when the Scotch chronicler Winton thus quaintly describes 1 Gloucester Cart. pp. 55, 61, 64. F 66 The English Village Community. Chap. ii. i\]e efforts of King Alexander III. to increase the growth of corn in his kingdom : — Yhwmen, pewere karl, or knawe That wes of mycht an ox til have He gert that man hawe part in pluche : Swa wes corn in his land enwche: Swa than begouth, and efter lang Of land wes mesure, ane oxgang. Mychty men that had ma Oxyn, he gert in plnchys ga. Be that vertu all his land Of corn he gert be abowndand.1 Not that Alexander HE. was really the originator of the terms ' plow-land ' and ' oxgate,' but that he attained his object of increasing the growth of corn by extending into new districts of Scotland, before given up chiefly to grazing, the same methods of husbandry as elsewhere had been at work from time immemorial, just as the monks of Kelso probably had done, by giving each of their villein tenants a ' stuht ' of 2 oxen with which to plough their husband-lands. One point more, however, still remains to be ex- plained before the principle of the open field system can be said to be fully grasped, viz. why the strips of which the hides, virgates, and bovates were composed were scattered in so strange a confusion all over the open fields. Sen-ices In the meantime the following examples of the services of the villein tenants of Keho husband-lands and bovates are appended for the purpose of com- parison with those of other districts : — 1 Winton, vol. i. p. 400 (a.d. 1249-92). on Kelso manors. Kelso Records. 67 BOLDEX At Bolden— The monks have 28 ' husbands '- lands in the villa of Bolden, each of which used to render 6s. 8d. at Pentecost and Mar- tinmas, and to do certain ser- vices, viz. : To reap in autumn for 4 days with all his family, himself and wife. To perform likewise a fifth day's work in autumn with 2 men. To carry peat with one waggon for one day from Gordon to the ' pullis.' To carry one waggon-load of peat from the ' pullis ' to the abbey in summer, and no more. To carry once a year with one horse from Berwick. And to have their meals from the abbey when doing this service. To till 1£ acre at the grange of Neuton every year. To harrow with one horse one day. To find one man at the sheepwashing and an- other man at the shear- ing, without meals. To answer likewise for foreign service and for other suits. To carry corn in autumn with one waggon for one day. To carry the abbot's wool from the barony to the abbey. To find him carriage over the moor to Lessemaha°:u. Reveden * At Reveden — The monies have 8 'husbands '- lands and 1 bovate, each of which performed certain ser- vices at one time, viz. : Each week in summer the carriage with 1 horse to Berwick. The horse to carry 3 ' bollce ' of corn, or 2 'bollce' of salt, or 1 £ ' bollce ' of coals. In winter the same carriage, but the horse only carried 2 ' bollce ' of corn, or 1£ ' bollcB ' of salt, or 1 ' bolla ' and 'ferloth ' of coal. Each week, when they came from Berwick, each land did one day's work ac- cording to order. When they did not go to Berwick, they tilled 2 days a week. In autumn, when they did not go to Berwick they did 8 days' work. At that time each ' husband ' took with his land 'stuhtf viz. : 2 oxen, 1 horse, 3 ' celdrae ' of oats, 6 ' bollse ' of barley, 3 ' bollse ' of corn. And afterwards, when Ab- bot Richard commuted that service into money, they returned their ' stuht,' and each one gave for his land 18s. a year. Chap. II. 1 Hut. Red. Kelso, p. 461. 2 lb. p. 456. f 2 Chap. II. 68 The English Village Community. X. THE BOLDON BOOK, A.D. 1183. We are now in a position to creep up one step nearer to the time of the Domesday Survey, and in the Boldon Book to examine earlier examples of North Country manors. The Boldon Book is a survey of the manors belonging to the Bishop of Durham in the year 1183, nearly a century earlier than the date of the Hundred Eolls. Survey of The typical entry which may be taken as the Boldon. common form used throughout the record relates to the village of Boldon, from which the name of the survey is taken. It is as follows : 1 — The ser- ^n Boldon there are 22 villani, each holding 2 bovates, or .30 acres, rices of and paying 2s. 6d. for ' scat-penynges ' [being in fact Id. per acre], a villain. half l shaceldra' of oats, ]6rf. for ' averpenynges ' [in lieu of carrying service], 5 four-wheel waggons of ' woodlade ' [lading of wood], 2 cocks, and 10 eggs. They work 3 days a week throughout the year, excepting Easter week and Pentecost, and 13 days at Christmas. In autumn they do 4 dayworks at reaping, with all their family except the housewife. Also they reap 3 roods of ' averypej and plough and harrow 3 roods of ' averere.' Also each villein plough-team ploughs and harrows 2 acres, with allowance of food (' coi-rodium ') once from the bishop, and then they are quit of that week's work. When they do ' magnas precationts] they have a food allowance (corrodium) from the bishop, and as part of their works do harrowing when necessary, and 'faciunt ladas1 (make loads?). And when they do these each receives 1 loaf. Also they reap for 1 day at Octon till the evening, and then they receive an allowance of food. And for the fairs of St. Cuthbert, every 2 villeins erect a booth ; and when they make ' logia:' and 'wodolade' (load wood), they are quit of other labour. 1 P. 56G. The Boldon Book. 09 There are 12 ' cotmanm,1 each of whom holds 12 acres, and (hoy work Citap. II. throughout the year 2 days a week except in the aforesaid feasts, and render 12 hens and 60 eggs. Robertus holds 2 hovates or 36 acres, and renders half a mark. The Punder holds 1 2 acres, and receives from each plough 1 ' trave ' of corn, and renders 40 hens and 500 eggs. The Miller [renders] 5i marks. The ' Villani'' are, if need be, to make a house each year 40 feet long and 15 feet wide, and when they do this each is quit of Ad. of his 'averpenynges.' The whole ' villa ' renders 17s. as ' cornagium ' (i.e. tax on horned beasts), and 1 cow ' de metride.'1 The demesne is at farm, together with the stock for 4 ploughs and 4 harrows, and renders for 2 ploughs 16 ' celdrse ' of corn, 16 ' celdrse ' of oats, 8 ' celdrae ' of barley, and for the other 2 ploughs, 10 marks. Here then at Boldon were 22 villani, each hold- They hold ing two bovates or 30 acres, equivalent to a virgate JJ ^and8 or yard-land. In another place (Quycham) there are bovates< tz. . . . or s,ng'e said to be thirty-live ' bovat-villanij each of whom bovates. held a bovate of 15 acres, and performed such and such services.1 These correspond with holders of half-virgates. Below these villani, holding one or two bovates, as in all other similar records, were cottage holdings, some of 12 acres, some of 6 acres each. There seems to have been a certain equality in some places, even in the lowest rank of holdings. Here then, within about 100 years of the Domes- day Survey, are found the usual grades of holdings in villenage. The services, too, present little variation from those of later records and other parts of England. From the Boldon Book may be gathered a few points of further information, which may serve to complete the picture of the life of the village com- munity in villenage. 1 P. 579. 70 The English Village Community. Chap. II. Manor sorm' farmed by villani. Village officials : Tho punder. The - - The unity of the ' villata ' as a self-acting com- munity is illustrated by the fact that in many instances the services of the villani are farmed by them from the monastery as a body, at a single rent for the whole village1 — a step in the same direction as the commuta- tion of services and leasing of land to farm tenants, practices already everywhere becoming so usual. The corporate character of the ' villata ' is also illustrated by frequent mention of the village officials. The faber2 or blacksmith, whose duty it was to keep in repair the ironwork of the ploughs of the village, usually held his bovate or other holding in respect of his office free from ordinary services. The carpenter 3 also held his holding free, in return for his obligation to repair the woodwork of the ploughs and harrows. The punder4, (pound-keeper) was another official with a recognised position. And, as a matter of course, the villein tenant holding the office of propositus for the time being was freed by virtue of his office from the ordinary services of his virgate or two bovates,5 but resumed them again when his term of 1 P. 5G8. ' Villani de Southby- iyk tenent villani suam ad firniam et redduntv. libra?, etinvenient viiixx- homines ad metendum in autumpno et xxxvi. quadrigas {i.e. waggons) ad quadriganda blada apud Octo- nam ' (i.e. a neighbouring village where was probably the bishop's chief granary) (5G8n). 2 ' Faber (de Wermouth tenet) xii. acras pro ferramentis carucse et carbonea invenit ' ('0070). ' Faber (de Query ndonshire) te- net xii. acras pro ferramento carucse fabricando ' (696 b), ' Faber 1 bovat' pro euo ser- vicio ' (669 a\ Compare Hundred Rolls, p. 551 a, and Domesday of St. Paul's, p. G7. 3 ' Carpentarius (de Wermouth) qui senex habet in vita sua xii. acras pro carucis et herceis (i.e. harrows) faciendis' (5G7 a). 4 ' Punder (de Neubotill) tenet xii. acras et habet de unaquaque carucade Neubotill, de Bydyk etde Ileryngton (i.e. three villatae) unam travam bladi et reddit xl. (vel lx.) gallinas et ccc. ova ' (p. 568 a). 5 (In Seggefeeld). ' Johannes praepositus habet ii. bovatas pro servicio suo et si servicium praeposi- turse dimiserit, reddit et operatur sicut alii Firniarii ' (570a). The Boldon Book. 71 office ceased, and another villein was elected in his C,,A' "• stead. In addition to the ordinary agricultural services in respect of the arable land, there is mention, in the services of Boldon and other places, of special dues Comage. or payments, probably for rights of grazing or posses- sion of herds of cattle. This kind of payment is called ' cornagium,' either because it is paid in horned cattle, or, if in money, in respect of the number of horned cattle held. There are also services connected with the bishop's Drcngago. hunting expeditions. Thus there are persons holding in ' drengage,' who have to feed a horse and a dog, and ' to go in the great hunt' {magna caza) with two harriers and 15 ' cordons,' &C1 So of the villani of ' Aucklandshire ' 2 it is recorded Hunting that they are ' to furnish for the great hunts of the serv,ce< ' bishop a " cordon " from each bovate, and to make ' the Bishop's hall (aula) in the forest, sixty feet long ' and sixteen feet wide between the posts, with a ' buttery, a steward's room, a chamber and " privat." ' Also they make a chapel 40 feet long by 15 wide, ' receiving two shillings, of charity ; and make their fc portion of the hedge (haya) round the lodges {logice). ' On the departure of the bishop they have a full tun ' of beer, or half a tun if he should stay on. They ' also keep the eyries of the hawks in the bailiwick of Booths at ' Eadulphus Callidus, and put up 18 booths (botlias) of %™n ' at the fairs of St. Cuthbert.' Cuthbert. The last item, which also occurs in the services of Boldon, is interesting in connexion with a passage in a letter of Pope Gregory the Great to the Abbot 1 P. 572. 2 P. 575. 72 The English Village Community. Chap. II. Mellitus (a.d. 601), in which he requests the Bishop Augustine to be told that, after due consideration of the habits of the English nation, he (the Pope) deter- mines that, ' because they have been used to slaughter ' many oxen in the sacrifices to devils, some solemnity ' must be exchanged for them on this account, as that ' on the day of the dedication, or the nativities of the ' holy martyrs, whose relics are there deposited, they ' may build themselves huts of the boughs of trees, 1 about those churches which have been turned to ' that use from temples, and celebrate the solemnity ' with religious feasting, and no more offer beasts to 1 the devil, but kill cattle to the praise of God in their ' eating, it being impossible to efface everything at 1 once from their obdurate minds : because he who * tries to rise to the highest place rises by degrees or ' steps, and not by leaps.' 1 The villeins of St. Cuthbert's successor are found 500 years after Pope Gregory's advice still, as a portion of their services, yearly putting up the booths for the fairs held in honour of their patron saint — a fact which may help us to realise the tenacity of local custom, and lessen our surprise if we find also that for the origin of other services we must look back for as long a period. XI. THE ' LIBER NIGER ' OF PETERBOROUGH ABBEY, A.D. 1125. Fifty or sixty years earlier than the Boldon Book, was compiled the ' Liber Niger ' 2 of the monastery of St. Peter de Burgo, the abbey of Peterborough. 1 Bede, bk. i. r.xxx. I Society, 1840, as an appendix to * I'uLli.shed by the Oamden I the Chronicon Pctroburgense. 77te ' Liber Niger' of Peterborough. 73 This record is remarkably exact and full in its CnAP- n- details. Its date is from 1125 to 1128 ; and its evidence brings up our knowledge of the English manor and serfdom — the open field and its holdings — almost to the threshold of the Domesday Survey, i.e. within about 40 years of it. The first entry gives the following information : ' — In Kateringes, which is assessed at 10 hides, 40 villani beld 40 yard- lands {virgas terrae, or virgates), and there were 8 cotsetes, each holding 5 acres. The services were as follows : The holders of virgates for the lord's work plough in spring 4 acres for each virgate. And besides this they find plough teams {carucae) three times in winter, three times for spring plowing, and once in summer. And they have 22 plough teams, wherewith they work. And all of them work 3 days a week. And besides this they render per annum from each virgate of custom 2s. l^d. And they all render 50 hens and 640 eggs. One tenant of 13 acres renders \Qd., and [has] 2 acres of meadow. The mill with the miller renders 20s. The 8 cotsetes work one day a week, and twice a year make malt. Each of them gives a penny for a goat, and if he has a she-goat, a halfpenny. There is a shepherd and a swineherd who hold 8 acres. And in the demesne of the manor {curiae) are 4 plough teams with 32 oxen {i.e. 8 to each team), 12 cows with 10 calves, and 2 unemployed animals, and 3 draught cattle, and 300 sheep, and 50 pigs, and as much meadow over as ia worth 16s. The church of the village is at the altar of the abbey church. For the love-feast of St. Peter 2 [they give] 4 rams and 2 cows, or 5s.' This entry may be taken as a typical one. Here, then, within forty years of the date of the Holdings, Domesday Survey is clear evidence that the normal Inl naif- holding of the villanus was a virgate. Elsewhere vir£ates- there were semi-villani with half-virgates.3 1 P. 157. 2 The love-feast {caritas) of St. Peter may possibly, like the fairs 8 In the next place mentioned 20 men hold 20 virgates, and 13 hold 6^ virgates among them, or of St. Outhbert, be a survival of half a virgate each ; and so on. In ancient pagan sacrifices allowed to one place 8 villani hold 1 hide continue by the permission of Pope and 1 virgate among them {i.e. Gregory the Great. See Hazlitt ; 2 prohably hold virgates, and 6 of under 'Wakes' and 'Fairs.' And them half-virgates), and 2 others Du Cange under ' Caritas.' hold 1 virgate each. In another, The English Village Community. Chap. II. The mano- rial plough team of eight oxen. Smaller ■ the villani Further, throughout this record fortunately the number of ploughs and oxen on the lord's demesne happens to be mentioned, from which the number of oxen to the team can be inferred. And the result is that in 15 out of 25 manors there were 8 oxen to a team ; in 6 the team had 6 oxen, and in the remaining 4 cases the numbers were odd. So far as it goes, this evidence proves that, as a rule, 8 oxen made up the full normal manorial plough team in the twelfth as in the thirteenth century. But it should be observed that this seems to hold good only of the ploughs on the lord's demesne — in dominio curiae. The villani held other and apparently smaller ploughs, with about 4 oxen to the team instead of S, and with these they performed their services.1 20 pleni villani [of 1 virgate each] and 29 semi-villani [of half-virgate each] hold in all 34 virgates and a half. In another, 8 villani hold 8 hovates, and 3 novates are waste. In the rest of the record it is generally assumed that the 'pleni villani' have a virgate each, and the ' dimidii villani ' half a virgate each. 1 The following are instances of the villein plough teams :■ The holders of 40 virgates hold 22 plough teams. 20 » 12 20 )> 9 8 2 There seems to have been as nearly as possible one plough team to each two virgates, which at two oxen the virgate would give four oxen to the plough instead of eight. Speaking generally, it may there- fore be said that there were on the Peterborough manors the greater ploughs of the lord's demense with their separate teams of eiJ>e o'fiep gebal-lanb to cynanne."] haebben fume getyneb hiopa bael. rume nnebban.^ . . . etten hiopa je- maenan aecepar o]>]>e jaepr. 3&n ]>a ponne ]>e f seat ajan. ~\ gebete[n] ]»am oo'pum pe hiopa bsel jetynebne. . . . There is here in the smallest possible compass the most complete evidence that in the seventh century the fields of Wessex were common open fields, the arable being divided into acres and the meadows into doles 2 ; and as the system is incidentally mentioned as a thing existing as a matter of course, it is not likely to have been suddenly or recently introduced. The evidence throws it back, therefore, at least to the earliest period of Saxon rule. II. THE HOLDINGS WERE COMPOSED OF SCATTERED STRIPS. The hold- Let us next ask whether there are traces of the and scattered ownership — the scattering all over the open yard-lands, fi^g 0f tne stripS included in the holdings — which was so essential a characteristic of the system ; and, further, whether in tracing it back into early Saxon 1 Laws of King Ine. Ancient Laws, fyc, of England, Thorpe, p. 55. 2 It will be remembered that Lammas land is divided into strips for the hay crop. In the Winslow Rolls, in the list of strips included in the virgate of John Moldeson were some strips or dolei of meadow — hence dtcl and geddl-land. That gedal-land = open fields divided into strips, see Hist. Abingdon (p. 304), where there is a charter, a.d. 961, making a grant of ' 9 mansas ' and ' thas nigon hida licggcad on gemang othran gedal-landc, feldes genuine and mreda genuine and yrthland tremane.' The Saxon Open Field System. Ill times any clue to its original meaning and intention C,,AP- 1V- can be found. First, it may be stated generally that, when the nature and incidents of the holdings are examined hereafter, it will be found that throughout the period of Saxon rule, from the time of Edward the Confessor backward to the date of the laws of King Ine, 300 years earlier, the holdings were mainly the same as those with which we have become familiar, viz. hides, half -hides, and yard-lands, and that, generally speak- ing, there were no other kinds of holdings the names of which are mentioned. That these Saxon hides and yard-lands were com- Holdings posed of scattered strips in the open fields, as they Scattered were afterwards, might well be inferred from the mere stnps* fact that they bore the same names as those used after the Conquest. It would be strange indeed if the same names at the two dates meant entirely different things — if the virgate or yard-land before the Conquest was a thing wholly different from what it was after it. But there is other evidence than the mere names of the holdings. There is a general characteristic of the numerous Saxon charters of all periods, which, when carefully considered, can hardly have any other explanation than the fact that the holdings were composed not of contiguous blocks of land, but of scattered strips. It is this — that whatever be the subject of the grant made by the charter, i.e. whether it be a whole manor or township that is granted, or only some of the holdings in it, the boundaries appended are the boundaries of the whole manor or township. No doubt the royal gifts to the monastic houses generally 112 The English Village Community . Chap. IV. The boun- daries were of whole manors, of which they were shares. did consist of whole manors, and thus the boundaries in most cases naturally were the boundaries of the whole, and could not be otherwise. But it was not always so. Thus, among the Abingdon charters there are two of Edward the Martyr, one of vii. hides (cassatos), in ' Cingestune,' and another of xiii. 1 mansas ' in ' Cyngestun,' one to the Church of St. Mary at Abingdon, the other to a person named JEXfstan\x and to both charters are appended the same boundaries in substantially the same words. And these are the boundaries of the whole township} There can hardly be any other explanation of this peculiarity than the fact that the holdings were not blocks of land, the boundaries of which could be easily given, but, in fact, like the hides and virgates after the Conquest, bundles of strips scattered over the open fields, and intermixed with strips belonging to other holdings. Indeed, there is in a charter of King Ethelred (a.d. 982) among the Abingdon series relating to five hides at ' Cheorletun,' a direct confes- sion of the reason why in this case all boundaries are omitted. Instead of the usual boundaries of the whole township there is the statement that the estate is ' the less distinctly defined by boundaries, quia jugera altrinsecus copulata adjacent ' — because the acres are intermixed.3 On the hypothesis already suggested that the hides, half-hides, virgates, and bovates were the shares in the results of the ploughing of the village plough teams 1 Vol. i. pp. 349-862. 5 So also see Codex Diploma- ticus, dii. and dxvi., and cccclxvii. and ccexxxv. 8 Vol. i. p. 384. Compare also the boundaries of Draitune, ' eecer uncle?- cecer,' p. 248. Also the same expression, pp. 3.j0 and 353. The Sa.von Open Field System. 113 — in other words, the number of strips allotted to each Chap. iv. holder in respect of the oxen contributed by him to the plough team of eight oxen — it is perfectly natural that in a grant of some only of the holdings the boundaries given should be those of the whole town- ship, viz. of the whole area, an intermixed share in which constituted the holding. There is another fact, which has, perhaps, never other eri- yet been explained, but which is nevertheless per- fectly intelligible on the same hypothesis. It will be remembered that there was observed in the Winslow example of a virgate a certain regular turn or rotation in the order of the strips in the vir- gates — that John Moldeson's strips almost always came next after the strips of one, and were followed by those of another, particular neighbour. Now this fact strongly suggests that originally the holdings had not always and permanently consisted of the same actual strips, but that once upon a time the strips were perhaps allotted afresh each year in the plough- ing according to a certain order of rotation, the turn of the contributor of two oxen coming twice as often as that of the contributor of one ox, and so making the virgate contain twice as many strips as the bovate. This, and this alone, would give the requisite elas- ticity to the system so as to allow, if necessary, of the admission of new-comers into the village community, and new virgates into the village fields. So long as the limits of the land were not reached a fresh tenant would rob no one by adding his oxen to the village plough teams, and receiving in regular turn the strips allotted in the ploughing to his oxen. In the working of the system the strips of a new holding I 114 The English Village Community Chap. iv. won]d De intermixed with the others by a perfectly natural process. Now, that something like this process did actually happen in Saxon times is clear from the way in which the Church was provided for under the Saxon laws. The mode In the light which is given by the knowledge of in u-h° h am ealban mynpcpe pe reo hypner co-hyp py ponne ppa gelaepc. sejSep ge op pejner m-lanbe je op geneac- lanbe. ppa ppa bic peo pulh ge- Sange.3 There is very little reference in the Domesday Survey to the churches and their tithes, but there happens to be one entry at least in which there seems 1 Thorpe, p. 146. the plough traverses it.' Thorpe, 2 Ibid. p. 144. So also in the p. 150. Laws of Onut, 'The tenth acre as 2 Ibid. p. 111. The Saxon Open Field System. 117 to be a clear reference to this practice of the tithes CnA,v [V- being taken in actual strips and acres. It relates to Acres oi the church at Wallop, in Hampshire (the place from Domesday which the family name of the Earls of Portsmouth is Survo>'- derived), and it states that ' to the church there per- 1 tains one hide, also half of the tithes of the manor, ' also the whole kirkshot. And of the tithes of the * villani xlvi. pence and half of the acres. There is in * addition a little church to which pertain viii. acres 1 of the tithes' 1 It may be taken then as certain that the holdings in villenage in the open fields of the Saxon ' hams ' and ' tuns ' were composed, like the virgate of John Moldeson, in the manor of Winslow, centuries after- wards, of strips scattered, one in this furlong and another in that, all over the village fields ; and it may be taken as already almost certain that the scattering of the strips was in some way connected with the order in which the strips were allotted in respect of the oxen contributed to the village plough teams. III. THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM OF CO-ARATION DESCRIBED IN THE ANCIENT LAWS OF WALES. The law that every tenth strip as it was traversed strips by the plough was to be set apart for the tithe is an order of certainly the clearest hint that has yet been discovered rotatloD> of the perhaps annual redistribution of the strips among the holdings in a certain order of rotation, 1 D. i. 38 b. Wallope (Hants). ' Ibi secclesia cui pertinet una hida ' et medietas decimal manerii et ' totum Oirset, et de decima villa- ' norum XLVI. denarii et medietas : a&Torum.' ' Ibi est adhuc recclesiola, ad quam pertinent viii. acrse de decima.' 118 The English Village Community. Chap. iv. though it is possible of course that a redistribution being once made, to make room for the acres set apart for the tithe, the same strips might always thereafter be assigned to the tithe and to each parti- cular yard -land year after year without alteration. What is still wanted to lift the explanation already offered of the connexion of the grades of holdings in the open fields and the scattering of the strips in each holding, with the team of 8 oxen, out of the region of hypothesis into that of ascertained fact is the discovery if possible somewhere actually at work of the system of common ploughing with eight oxen, and according the assignment of the strips in respect of the oxen to contri- ' their several owners. Were it possible to watch such an example of the actual process going on, there pro- bably would be disclosed by some little detail of its working the reason and method of the scattering of the strips, and of the order of rotation in which they seem to have been allotted. Now it happens that such an instance is at hand, affording every opportunity for examination under The system the most favourable circumstances possible. We find under the it in the ancient Welsh laws, representing to a large J^of extent ancient Welsh traditions collected and codified Wales. jn f]ie tenth century, but somewhat modified after- wards, and coming down to us in a text of the four- teenth century. In these laws is much trustworthy evidence from which might be drawn a very graphic picture of the social and economic condition of the unconquered Welsh people, at a time parallel to the centuries of Saxon rule in England. And amongst other things fortunately there is an almost perfect picture of the method of ploughing. Nor is it too The Saxon Open Field System. 119 much to say that in this picture we have a key which CnAP- IV- completely fits the lock, and explains the riddle of the English open field system. For the ancient Welsh laws describe a simple form of the open field system at an earlier stage than that in which we have yet seen it — at a time, in fact, when it was a living system at work, and everything about it had a present and obvious meaning, and its details were consistent and intelligible. Let us examine this Welsh evidence. Precisely as the modern statute acre had its origin Tlie Wplsh . ... erws, or in the Saxon cecer, which was an actual division of the acre strips fields, so that the Saxon ceceras were the strips divided by balks — the seliones — of the open field system ; so the modern Welsh word for acre as a quantity of land is ' erw,' and the same word in its ancient meaning in the Welsh laws was the actual strip in the open fields. This is placed beyond a doubt by the fact that its measurements are carefully given over and over again, and that it was divided from its neighbours by Divided by an unploughed balk of turf two furrows wide.1 The Welsh laws describe the primitive way in which the erw was to be measured. In one province this was to be done by a man holding a rod of a cer- tain length and stretching it on both sides of him to fix the width, while the length is to be a certain mul- tiple of its breadth.2 In other provinces of Wales the width was to be fixed by a rod equal in length to the Measured by a rod. 1 (5) The breadth of a boundary (Jin) between two trevs, if it be of land, is a fathom and a half. . . . (7) Between two erws, two furrows (Ancient Laws, fyc, of Wales, p. 373). 'The boundary (tervyn) between two erws, two furrows, and that is called a balk (synach).' (P. 525.) 2 Ancient Laws : Venedotian Code, pp. 81 and 90. Leycs U'(d- liccB, p. 831. 120 The English Village Community. :hav. rv. iong y0fce usec[ [n ploughing with four oxen abreast.1 The erw thus ascertained closely resembled in shape the English strips, though it varied in size in different districts, and was less than the modern acre in its contents. Next there was, according to the Welsh laws, a certain regulated rotation of ownership in the erws 1 as they were traversed by the plough,' resulting from a well-ordered system of co-operative ploughing. In the Venedotian Code especially are elaborate rules as to the ' cyvar ' or co-aration, and these expose the system in its ancient form actually at work, with great vividness of detail. The chief of these rules are given below,2 from 1 Ancient Laws, p. 263 (Dime- tian Code) ; p. 374 (Giventian Code). 2 Ancient Laios, p. 153. ( Vene- dotian Code.) XXIV. Of Co-tillage this treats. 1. Whoever shall engage in co- tillage with another, it is right for them to give surety for perform- ance, and mutually join hands; and, after they have done that, to keep it until the tye be completed : the tye is twelve erws. 2. The measure of the erw, has it not been before set forth ? 3. The first erw belongs to the ploughman ; the second to the irons ; the third to the exterior sod ox; the fourth to the exterior sward ox, lest the yoke should be broken ; and the fifth to the driver: and so the erws are appropriated, from best to best, to the oxen, thence onward, unless the yoke be stopped between them, unto the last ; and after that the plough erw, which is called the plough-bote cyvar ; and that once in the year 10. Every one is to bring his requisites to the ploughing, whether ox, or irons, or other things per- taining to him ; and after every- thing is brought to them, the ploughman and the driver are to keep the whole safely, and use them as well as they would their own. The driver is to yoke in the oxen carefully, so that they be not too tight, nor too loose ; and drive them so as not to break their hearts : and if damage happen to them on that occasion, he is to make it good; or else swear that he used them not worse than his own. 12. The ploughman is not to pay for the oxen, unless they be bruised by him ; and if he bruise either one or the whole, let him pay, The Saxon Open Field System, 121 which it will be seen that in the co-tillage the team. Chap.iv. as in England and Scotland, was assumed to be of Team of eight oxen. And those who join in co-ploughing iTti! must bring a proper contribution, whether oxen or aratlon- plough irons, handing them over during the common ploughing to the charge of the common ploughman and the driver, who together are bound to keep and use everything as well as they would do their own, till, the co-ploughing being done, the owners take their own property away. So the common ploughing was arranged. But how was the produce of the partnership to be divided ? This, too, is settled by the law, representing no doubt immemorial custom. The first erw ploughed flotation in tit . erws ' ac- was to go to the ploughman, the second to the irons, cording to the third to the outside sod ox, the fourth to the out- side sward ox, the fifth to the driver, the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh to the other six oxen in order of worth ; and lastly, the twelfth was the plough erw, for ploughbote, i.e. for the mainte- nance of the woodwork of the plough ; and so, it is stated, ' the tie of 12 erws was completed.' Further, the oxon. or exonerate himself. The plough- man is to assist the driver in yoking the oxen ; but he is to loosen only the two short-yoked. 13. After the co-tillage shall he completed, every one is to take his requisites with him home. 16. If there should he a dispute about bad tillage between two co- tillers, let the erw of the plough- man be examined as to the depth, length, and breadth of the furrow , and let every one's be completed alike. 28. Whoever shall own the irons is to keep them in order, that the ploughman and driver be not impeded ; and they are to have no assistance. The driver is to furnish the bows of the yokes with wythea ; and, if it be a long team, the small rings, and pegs of the bows. See also Gwent.ian Code, p. 354 ; and the Leges Wallice, p. 801. 122 The English Village Community. Chap. iv. jf any dispute should arise between the co-tillers as to the fairness of the ploughing, the common-sense rule was to be followed that the erw which fell to the ploughman should be examined as to the depth, length, and breadth of the furrows and every one's erw must be ploughed equally well. Here, then, in the Welsh laws is the clearest evi- dence not only of the division of the common fields by turf balks two furrows wide into the long narrow strips called erws, or acres, and roughly corresponding in shape, though not in area, with those on English fields, but also of the very rules and methods by which their size and shape, as well as the order of their ownership, were fixed in Wales, rt is the And this order in the allotment of the erws turns division of out to be an ingenious system for equitably dividing of^tiii-8 year by year the produce of the co-operative ploughing ase- between the contributors to it. Now, without entering at present into the question of its connexion with the tribal system in Wales, which will require careful consideration hereafter, several interesting and useful flashes of light may be drawn from this glimpse into the methods and rules of the ancient Welsh system of co-operative plough- ing. The size of In the first place, ancient Welsh ploughing was necessitates evidently not like the classical ploughing of the sunny south, a mere scratching of the ground with a light plough, which one or two horses or oxen could draw. In the Welsh laws a team of eight oxen, as already said, is assumed to be necessary. And hence the necessity of co-operative ploughing. The plough was evidently heavy and the ploughing deep, just as was the case in c>-m]m ra- tion, The Saxon Open Field System. 123 the twelfth century, and probably from still earlier to C"AP- Iv quite modern times in Scotland, where, as we have seen, the plough was of the same heavy kind, and the team of eight or of twelve oxen. And it is curious to observe that the Welsh, like the Scotch oxen in modern times, were driven four abreast, i.e. yoked four to a yoke. So that, as already suggested, the plough was aptly described by the monks in their mediaeval Latin as a ' caruca,' and the ploughed land as a 'carucate.' But the most interesting point about the ancient and the . .. stri ] Welsh co-operative ploughing was the fact that the with the key to a share in the produce was the contribution of ° one or more oxen to the team. He who contributed one ox was entitled to one erw in the twelve. He who contributed two oxen was entitled to two erws. He who contributed a whole yoke of four oxen would receive four erws, while only the owner of the full team of eight oxen could possibly do without the co-opera- tion of others in ploughing. Surely this Welsh evi- dence satisfactorily verifies the hypothesis already suggested by the term bovate, and by the allotment of two oxen as outfit to the yard-land or virgate, and by the taking of tithes in the shape of every tenth strip as it was traversed by the plough, and lastly by the order of rotation in the strips disclosed by the Winslow example. It explains how the possession of the oxen came to be in Saxon, as probably in still earlier British or Roman times, the key to the position of the holder, and his rank in the hierarchy of the village com- munity. And it points to the Saxon system of hides and yard -lands having possibly sprung naturally out 124 The English Village Community. Chap. IV. Hence the yard-land became a bundle of scattered strips. The strip the day's ploughing. of pre-existing British or Roman arrangements, rather than as having been a purely Saxon importation. It also suggests a ready explanation of how when the common tillage died out, and the strips included in a hide, yard-land, or virgate, instead of varying with each }Tear's arrangements of the plough teams, became occupied by the villein tenant year after year in per- manent possession, there would naturally be left, as a survival of the ancient system, that now meaningless and inconvenient scattering of the strips forming a holding all over the open fields which in modern times so incensed Arthur Young, and made the En- closure Acts necessary. There is, lastly, another point in which the Welsh laws of co-aration sug-gest a cnie to ^ne reason an<^ origin of a widely spread trait of the open field system. Why were the strips in the open field system uniformly so small? The acre or erw was obviously a furrow-long for the convenience of the ploughing. But what fixed its breadth and its area ? This, too, is explained. According to the Welsh laws it was the measure of a day's co -ploughing . This is clear from two passages in the laws where it is called a ' cyvar J or a ' co-ploughing.' 1 And it would seem that a day's ploughing ended at midday, because in the legal description of a complete ox it is required to plough only to midday.2 The Gallic word for the acre or strip, 'journel,' in the Latin of the monks ' jumalisj and 1 Ancient Laws, fyc, p. 150, Vene- dotian Code, 'the worth of ' winter tilth of a cyvar two legal pence ; ' and so p. 2^0, Dimetian Code. P. 153. ' The plough erw, which is called the ploughbot <-\ v ar. ' 354, Gwentian Code. ~C J-..V The -. . — — _, »-™./l««« l,™(" J- lie worth of one day's ploughing is two legal pence.' 2 Ancient Laws, eye, p. 134. The Saxon Open Field System. 125 sometimes diurnalis,1 also points to a day's ploughing ; °HAP- iV while the German word ' morgen ' for the same strips in the German open fields still more clearly points to a day's work which ended, like the Welsh ' cyvar,' at noon. 1 See Du Cange under ' Diurnalis,' who quotes a passage of a.d. 704. CHAPTER V. MANORS AND SERFDOM UNDER SAXON RULE. Chap. V. The kams find tuns were manors. I. THE SAXOX ' HAMS ' AND ' TUNS ' WERE MANORS WITH VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN SERFDOM UPON THEM. Having now ascertained that the open field system was prevalent during Saxon, and probably pre- Saxon times, we have next to inquire whether the ' hams ' and ' tuns ' to which the common fields be- longed were manors — i.e. estates with a village com- munity in serfdom upon them — or whether, on the contrary, there once dwelt within them a free village community holding their yard-lands by freehold or allodial tenure. Let us at once dismiss from the question the word 1 manor.' It was the name generally used in the Domesday Survey, for a thing described in the Survey as already existing at the time of Edward the Con- fessor. The estate called a manor was certainly as much a Saxon institution under the Confessor as it was a Norman one afterwards. The Domesday book itself does not always adhere to this single word ' manor ' throughout its pages. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 127 The word manerium gives place in the Exeter Survey Cl,AP- v to the word villa for the whole manor, andmansio for the manor-house ; and the same words, villa and mansio, are also used in the instructions * given at the commencement of the Inquisitio Eliensis. It is perfectly clear, then, that what was called a manor or villa, both in the west and in the east of England, was in fact the estate of a lord with a village community in villenage upon it. In the Boldon Book also the word villa is used instead of manor. So in Saxon documents the whole manor or estate was called by various names, generally ' ham ' or 1 tun.'' In King Alfred's will2 estates in the south-east of Kin? .& . Alfred's England, including the villages upon them, which by will. Norman scribes would have been called manors, are described as hams (the ham at such a place). In the old English version of the will given in the ' Liber de Hyda ' 3 the word ' twune ' is used to translate ' ham,* and in the Latin version the word ' villa.'4 In the Saxon translation of the parable of the Parable of prodigal son, the country estate of the citizen — the gaifon. ' ' burh-sittenden man ' — to which the prodigal was sent to feed swine, and where he starved upon the ' bean- cods ' that the swine did eat, was the citizen's ' tune.' 5 So that the ' hams ' and ' tuns ' of Saxon times were in fact commonly private estates with villages upon them, i.e. manors. This fact is fully borne out by the series of Saxon l. < — villani uniuscnjusque villa. Deinde quomodo vocatur mansio ' (f. 497). 2 Liber de Hyda, p. 63. 8 Id. p. 68. 4 Id. p. 7± 4 Luke xv. 16. 12S The English Village Community. Char V Grants whole manors of Saxon words. charters from first to last. They generally, as already said, contain grants of whole manors in this sense, in- cluding the villages upon them, with all the village fields, pastures, meadows, &c, embraced within the boundaries given. And these boundaries are the boundaries of the whole village or township — i.e. of the whole estate. Further, a careful examination of Anglo-Saxon documents will show that the Saxon manors, not only at the time of Edward the Confessor, as shown by the Domesday Survey, but also long previously, were divided into the land of the lord's demesne and the land in villenage, though the Norman phraseology was not yet used. The lord of the manor was a thane or ' lila ford? The demesne land was the thane's inland. All classes of villeins were called geneats. The land in villenage was the geneat-land, or the gesettes-land, or sometimes the gafol-land. And further, this geneat-, or gesettes-, or gafol-land was composed, like the later land in villenage, of hides and yard-lands, whilst the villein tenants of it, as in the Domesday Survey, were divided mainly into two classes: (1) the geburs (villain proper), or holders of yard-lands ; and (2) the cottiers with their smaller holdings. Beneath these two classes of holders of geneat land were the theows or slaves, answering to the servi of the Survey. Lastly, there is clear evidence that this was so as early as the date of the laws of King Ine, which claim to repre- sent the customs of the seventh century. To the proof of these points attention must now be directed. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom, L29 II. THE RECTITUDINES SINGULARUM REKSOXARU-M. Chap. V. In order to make these points clear, attention must be turned to a remarkable document, the Saxon ver- sion of which dates probably from the tenth, and the Latin translation from the twelfth century.1 It is entitled the ' Rectitudines Singularum Person- Thl arum, which may be translated ' the services due jrom tenth j century. various persons. J It commences with two general sections, the first relating to the services of the ' thane,' and the second to those of the ' geneat.' DeceNes lheu. Dejenej- laju if ^ he ry hij- boc-pihcef pypoe. ~} f he opeo Sine of hip lanbe bo. pypb-faepelb. 3 buph- boce ~) bpyc-gepeopc. Gac Of manejum lan- bum mape lanb-pihc apifc co cynijef je- banne. fpilce if beop- heje co cynijef hame. ~) fcopp co ppiS-fcipe. 3 fae-peapb. 3 heapb- peapb. -] Fy]>^_Peapb. aelmef-peoh. ■] cypic- fceac. 3 masnije ooepemifchcebinjc '.• TAINI LEX. Taini lex est, ut sit dignus rectitudine testamenti sui, et ut ita faciat pro terra sua, scilicet, expedi- tionem, burh-botam et brig-botam. Et de multis terris majus landirectum exurgit ad bannum regis, sic- ut est deorbege ad mansionem regiam et sceorpum inhosticum, et custodiam maris et capitis, et pacis, et elmesfeoh, id est pe- ctinia elemosine et ciricsceatum, et alie res multimode. THANE'S LAW. The thane's law is that he be worthy of his boc- rights, and that he do three things for his land, fyrd-faereld, burh- bot, and brig-bot. Also from many lands more land-ser- vices are due at the king's bann, as deer- hedging at the king's ham, and apparel for the guard, and sea-ward and head- ward and fyrd-ward and almsfee and kirkshot, and many other various things. Thane's 1 See Ancient Laics and Insti- tutes of England, Thorpe, p. 185. This document was the subject of a special treatise by Leo, Halle, 1842. Dr. Heinrich 130 The English Village Community. Chap. V. Geneat's or villein's services. Tot tier's services. neNeKTes riiit. Ijeneat-pilicip nnp- clic be 'Sam tie on lanbe pcamt. On ru- mon lie fceal lanb- gapol pyllan ~\ jaqip- rpyn on geape. "j pi- ban "] auepian "j labe la;ban. pypcan •] hla- popb peopmian. 3 pi- pan 3 mapan. beop- hege heapan. ~\ paece halban. by than. ~\ buph hegejian nige papan to tune peccan. cypic-pceac pyllan -] a?lniep-peoh. Iieapob- peapbe healban -) hopp-peapbe. aepen- bian. pyp ppa nyp. I pa hpybep ppa him moil co-ca?cS •• VILLANI RECTUM. Villani rectum est varium et multiplex, secundum quod in terra statutum est. In quibusdam terris debet dare landga- blum et gsersspin, id est, porcum berbagii, et equitare vel ave- riare, et sumniagium ducere, operari, et do- minum suum firmare, metere et falcare, de- orhege cedere, et sta- bilitatem observare, edificare et circum- sepire, novam faram adducere,ciricsceatum dare et almesfeob, id est, pecuniam elemo- sine, heafod-wardam custodire et horswar- dam, in nuncium ire, longe vel prope, quo- cunque dicetur ei. GENEAT'S SER- VICES. The geneat's ser- vices are various as on the land is fixed. On some he shaU pay land-gafol and grass-swine yearly, and ride, and carry, and lead loads ; work and support his lord, and reap and mow, cut deer- hedge and keep it up, build, and hedge the burh, make new roads for the tun : pay kirk snot and almsfee : keep head- ward and horse- ward : go errands far or near wher- ever he is directed. Then follow what really are sub-sections of the latter clause, and they describe the services of the various classes of geneats ; first of the cottiers. KOT-SCTLKN RIHT. COTSETLE RECTUM. Kote-petlan pihc. be Sam Se on lanbe iT.enr. On punion he pceal aelce ODon-baeje opep jeapej- pyppc hip lapophe pypcan. 01SS .111. bagap adcpe pu- can on ha.'ppt']c. Cotsetle rectum est juxta quod in terra constitutum est. Apud quosdam debet omni die Lune per anni spatium operari do- mino suo, et tribus diebus unaquaque septimanain Augusto. Apud quosdam opera- tur per totum Augus- tum, omni die, et COTTIER'S SER- VICES. The cottier's ser- vices are what on the land is fixed. On some he shall each Monday in the year work for his lord, and three days a week in harvest. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 131 K0T-S6TLKN RIHT. COTSETLE RECTUM. imam acram avene metit pro diurnale opere. Et habeat gar- bam suam quam prse- positus vel minister domini dabit ei. Non dabit landgablum. Debet habere quinque acras ad perhaben- dum, plus si consue- tudo sit ibi, et parum nimis est si minus sit quod deservit, quia sepius est operi illius. Det super beorSpe- nig in sancto die Jovis, sicut omnis li- ber facere debet, et adquietet inland do- mini sui, si submo- nitio fiat de sewarde, id est de custodia maris, vel de regis deorhege, et ceteris rebus que sue men- sure sunt ; et det suum cyricsceatum in festo Sci Martini. COTTIER'S SEE- VICES. Chap. V. ne Seapp he lanb-japol pyllan. pirn £e-by- piao" [.v.] aecepap co habbanne. mape jyp hie on lanbe Seap py. -j co lycel hicbr5 beo hie a laeppe. popoan hip peopc pceal beon opc-paebe. pylle hip heopS-paenig on hal- gan Dunpep baaj. eal ppa selcan pjngean men gebypeo'. ~\ pe- pije hip hlapopbep in- lanb. jip him man beobe. aec pae-peapbe ~\ aec cynijepbeop-heje. ~] aec ppilcan Singan ppilc hip mae'5 py. ■] pylle hip cypic-pceac co GOapcinup maep- pan !• Then the services of the gebur or holder of a yard-land are described as follows : — He ought not to pay land-gafol. He ought to have five acres in his holding, more if it be the custom on the land, and too little it is if it be less : because his work is often required. He pays hearth-penny on Holy Thursday, as pertains to every freeman, and de- fends his lord's in- land, if he is re- quired, from sea- ward and from king's deer-hedge, and from such tit lugs as befit his degree. And he pays his kirk- shot at Martinmas. neBURes cgrihtg. Eebup-jepihca pyn miphce. jehpap hy pyn hepije. gehpap eac mebeme. on pumen lanbe ip f he pceal pypcan co pic-peopce .II. bajap. ppilc peopc ppilc him man caecS opep jeapep pyppc. aelcpe pucan. ~] on haeppepc .in bajap co GEBURI CONSUE- TUDINES. Geburi consuetu- dines inveniuntur multimode, et ubi sunt onerose et ubi sunt leviores aut me- die. In quibusdam terris operatur opus septimane, n. dies, sic opus sicut ei dice- tur per anni spatium, omni septimana ; et K 2 GEBUR'S SER- VICES. The Gebur' s ser- Gebur's vices are various, in services. some places heavy, in others moderate. On some land he must work at week- work two days at such work as he is required through the year every week, and at harvest three 132 The English Village Community. Chap. V. Week- work. Gafol. Eene- vork. Gafol- yrth. ceBURes ceiiiHTe. pic-peopce. y op Ean- belmeeppe o5 (Baptpan .III. gip lie apepao' ne oeapp he pypcan 5a hpile 8e li i p hopp ute bio", pe fceal pyllan on GOichaelep maeppe- baeij .x. japol-p. y on GCaptmup mappe-baej .xxiii. pyjxpa bepep. y. ii. henpujelap. on Captpan an jeonj pceap. oSfie .II. p. y he pceal licjan op CTaptinup moeppan oS Gajtpan oec hlapopbep palbe. ppa opt ppa him to-bejaeS. y op Sam cinuui 6'e man aepept epeS oS GDapcinup maeppan he pceal selcpe pucan epian .1. SBceji. y paeban pylp ■j) paeb on hlapopbep bepne. to-eacan 6am .in. aecepap to bene. y .ii. to jaepp-ypoe. gyp he mapan jaeppep beSyppeo'onne eapmge [epije ?] tSasr ppa him man oapige. pip jauol -yp5e .in. aecepap epi^e y pape op hip ajanum bepne. y pylle hip heopS-ptenij. tpe- gen ^ tpegen peban tEiine heabop-hunb. y a?lc gebup pylle .vi. hlapap Sam in-ppane cSoime he hip heopbe CO maep-tene bpipe. On (Nam pylpuni lanbe tie Seor paeben on- ptaencgebupe gebypeo' •j< him man to lanb- GEBURI CONSUE- TUDINES. in Augusto in. dies pro septimanaliopera- tione, et a festo Can- delarum ad usque Pascha III. Si ave- riat, non cogitur ope- rari quamdiu equus ejus foris moratur. Dare debet in festo ScT Michaelis x. d. de gablo, et ScT Martini die xxin., et sesta- rium ordei, et n. gal- linas. Ad Pascha I. ovem juvenem vel n. d. Et jacebit a festo ScT Martini usque ad Pascha ad faldam domini sui, quotiens ei pertinebit. Et a termino quo primitus arabitur usque ad festum ScT Martini arabit una- quaque septimana I. acram, et ipse parabit semen domini sui in horreo. Ad haec in. acras precum, et duas de herbagio. Si plus indigeat herbagio, ara- bit proinde sicut ei permittatur. De ara- tura gabli sui arabit III. acras, et semina- bit de horreo suo et dabit suum heorSpe- nig ; et duo et duo pascant unum molos- sum. Et omnis ge- burus det VI. panes porcario curie quando gregem suum minabit in pastinagium. In ipsa terra ubi bee GEBUR'S SER- VICES. days for week- work, and from Candle- mas to Easter three. If he do carrying he has not to work while his horse is out. He shall pay on Michaelmas Day x. gafol-pence, and on Martinmas Bay xxiii. sesters of bar- ley and two hens; at Easter a young sheep or two pence ; and he shall lie from Martinmas to Easter at his lord's fold as often as he is told. And from the time that they first plough to Mar- tinmas he shall each week plough one acre, and prepare himself the seed in his lord1 s barn. Also iii. acres bene- work, and ii. to grass- yrth. If he needs more grass then he ploughs for it as he is allowed. For his gafol-yrth he ploughs iii. acres, and sows it from his own barn. And he pays his hearth- penny. Tioo and two feed one hound, and each gebur gives vi. loaves to the swineherd when he drives his herd to mast. On that land where this custom The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 1i> o EGBURCS CSRIHTe. pecene pylle .11. oxan •] .1. cu. •] .vi pceap. ■j .vii. aecepaj- jepa- pene on hip jypbe Ianbep. popSige opep -p geap ealle jepihcu 8e him co-jebypijean. -j pylle him man col co hip peopce -) anbla- man co hip hupe. Donne him popS-pio" jebypije syme hip hlapopb c5aep he laepe !■ Deop lanb-lagu pcaenc on puman lanbe. jehpaphicipppa icaep cparS hepigpe jeh- pap eac leohcpe. pop- 8am ealle lanb-pibane pyn gehce. On pumen lanbe gebup pceal pyllan hunij-gapol. on puman mece-japol. on puman ealu - gapol. pebepeSe jxipehealbe ■p he pice a hpaec ealb lanb-paeben py. "] hpaec Seobe Seap ;. GEBURI CONSUE- TUDINES. consuetudo stat, moris est ut ad terrain assi- dendam dentur ei II. boves et 1. vacca, et vi. oves, et vn. acre seminate, in sua vir- gata terra. Post il- ium annum faciat omnes rectitudines que ad eum attinent ; et committantur ei tela ad opus suum et suppellex ad domum suam. Si mortem obeat, rehabeat do- minus suus omnia. Hsec consuetudo stat in quibusdam locis, et alicubi est, sicutprediximus, gra- vior, et alicubi levior ; quia omnium terra- rum instituta non sunt equalia. In qui- busdam locis gebur dabit hunigablum, in quibusdam metega- blum, in quibusdam ealagablum. Videat qui scyram tenet, ut semper sciat que sit antiqua terrarum in- stitutio, vel populi consuetudo. holds it pertains to the gebur that he shall have given to him for his outfit ii. Outfit of oxen and i. cow and two oxen vi. sheep, and vii. \° -v ,''"'' '" r ,. land. acres soivn on his yard-land. Where- fore after that year he must perform all services which per- tain to him. And he must have given to him tools for his work, and utensils Jor his house. Then when he dies his lord takes back what he leaves. This land-law holds on some lands, but here and there, as I have said, it is heavier or Ugh terfor all land services are not alike. On some land the gebur shall pay honey -gafol, on some meat-gafol, on some ale-gafol. Let him who is over the district take care that he knows what the old land-customs are, and what are the customs of the people. Then follow the special services of the beekeeper, oxherd, cowherd, shepherd, goatherd, &c , upon which we need not dwell here ; and the document concludes with another declaration that the services vary ac- cording to the custom of each district. GEBUR'S SER- VICES. Chap. V. 134 The English Village Community. Chap. v. This important document is therefore a general description of the services due from the thane to the kino, and from the classes in villenao;e to their mano- Com,_ rial lord. And it might be the very model from spondence which the form of the Domesday Survey was taken. with the J J Domesday Both, in fact, first speak of the lord of the manor, and Survey. then of the villein tenants ; the latter being in both cases .divided into the two main classes of villani and cottiers ; for, as already stated, the Saxon thane answered to the Norman lord, the Saxon gebur answered to the villanus of the Survey, and the cot- setle to the cottier or bordarius of the Survey. But these various classes require separate consideration III. THE THANE AND HIS SERVICES. The , The ' Rectitudines ' begins with the thane or lord thanes . ° 'three of the manor ; and informs us that he owed his military and other services (for his manor) to the ^) I king — always including the three great needs — the trinoda necessitas ; viz. (1) to accompany the king in his military expeditions, or fyrd ; (2) to aid in the building of his castles, or burhbote ; (3) to maintain the bridges, or brigbote. Thanes The lord's demesne land was called the ' thane's nd" inland.' So, too, in a law of King Edgar's al- ready quoted, the tithes are ordered to be paid ' as well on the thanes inland as on geneat land,' show- ing that this distinction between the two was ex- haustive. So also in Scotland, where the old Saxon words were not so soon displaced by Norman terms as in The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 135 England, the lord of a manor was long called the C,,AP- v- thane of such and such a place. In the chronicler Wintoun's story of Macbeth, as well as in Shakespeare's version of it, there are the ' thane of Fyfe ' and the ' thane of Cawdor.' And the circumstance which, according to Win- Scotch -Mr 1 i i i l c ■»«• i A« • example of toun, gave rise to Macbeth s hatred of Macdun is Wrhbote. itself a graphic illustration of the ' burhbote,' or aid in castle-building due from the thane to his king :— And in Scotland than as kyng This Makbeth mad gret steryng And set hym than in hys powere A gret hows for to mak oft* were Upon the hycht oft' Dwnsynane. Tyrnbyr thare-till to draw and stane Off" Fyfe and off Angws he Gert mony oxin gadryd be. Sa on a day in thare traivaile A yhok off" oxyn Makbeth saw fayle, Than speryt Makbeth quha that awcht The yhoke that fayled in that drawcht. Thai awnsweryd till Makbeth agayne, And sayd, * Makduff off Fyffe the Thane That ilk yhoke oft' oxyn awcht That he saw fayle in to the drawcht.' Than spak Makbeth dyspytusly, And to the Thane sayd angryly, Lyk all wythyn in hys skin, Hys awyn nek he suld put in The yhoke and gev hyrn drawchtis drawe.1 But the military service was by far the most im- The tha.ne i -i • -i asasoldier. portant of ' the three needs or services due from the thane to the king. The thane was a soldier first of all things. The very word thane implies this. In translating the story of the centurion who had soldiers under him, the Saxon Gospel makes the The Cronykil of Scotland, B. VI. c. xviii. 1 3G The English Village Community. Chap. v. < Hundredes ealdor ' say, ' I have thanes under me ' (ic haebbe j?egnas under me).1 And though the text of the translation may not be earlier than the tenth century, yet, as the meaning of words does not change suddenly, it shows that the military service of the thane dated from a still earlier period. And just as in Norman times the barons and their Norman followers (Francigence eorum) were marked off from the population in villenage as companions or associates of the king or some great earl, or as they might now be called ' county men,' so the Saxon thanes 400 years before the Norman Conquest were 1 Gesithcundmen,' in respect of their obligation to ' do fyrd-faereld,' i.e. to accompany the king in his royal expeditions. But this association with the king did not break the bond of service. By the laws of King Ine 2 the gesithcundmen were fined and for- feited their land if they neglected their ' fyrd : ' — LI. Dip jepi'Scunb mon lanb- ajenbe poppicce pypbe gepelle .c.xx. rcill. 3 polie liip lanbep. 51. If a gesithcund man owning' land neglect the fyrd, let him pay cxx. shillings and forfeit his land. Asa But the 'gesithcund' thanes were landlords as well as soldiers. And King Ine found it needful to enact laws to secure that they performed their landlord's duties. They must not absent themselves from their manors without provision for the cultiva- tion of the land. When he /ceres, i.e. goes on long expeditions, a gesithcundman may take with him on his journey his reeve, his smith to forge his weapons, and his child's fosterer, or nurse.3 But if he have xx. hides of land, he must show xii. hides at least of 1 Matt. viii. 9. a Ines Domtis, s. 61. Thorpe, p. 68. 8 Id. s. 63. Thorpe, p. 62. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. L37 gesettes land on his manor; if he have x. hides, vi. . Chap. V. hides of gesettes land ; and if he have hi. hides, one and — a half hides of gesettes land before he absents himself from his manor.1 That ' geset land ' was a general and rather loose The term meaning the same thing as ' geneat land ' is ggTset!'ov clear from a charter of a.d. 950, which will be re- 9^°l hind- ferred to hereafter, wherein a manor is described as containing xxx. hides, ix. of inland and xxi. of 'gesettes land,' and the latter is said to contain so many yard- lands (' gyrda gafol-landes '). This instance also helps us to understand how gafol land, and gesettes land, and geneat land were all interchangeable terms — all, in fact, meaning ' land in villenage,' to the tenants on which we must now turn our attention. IV. THE GENEATS AND THEIR SERVICES. It has been shown that the Saxon thane's estate Geneat or manor was divided into thane's inland or demesne JJJDJ} ™ land, and geneat land or gesettes land, answering to the villenase land in villenage of the Domesday Survey. Let us now examine into the nature of the villenage on the geneat land under Saxon rule. ' Gesettes land ' etymologically seems to mean simply land set or let out to tenants. In the parable of the vineyard, the Saxon translation makes the wingeardes hlaford2 gesette' it out to husbandmen (gesette Jxme myd eorS-tylion) before he takes his journey into a far country, and the husbandmen are to pay him as tribute a portion of the annual fruits. 1 Id. s. 63-6. Thorpe, pp. 62-3. s Matt. xxi. 33. 138 The English Village Community. Chap. V. Need of husband- men. Settene stuht, or outfit of gcburs. Two oxen to yard- land. In early times, when population was scanty, there was a lack of husbandmen. Kino- Alfred, in his Saxon translation of Boethius, into which he often puts observations of his own, ex- presses in one of the most often quoted of these inter- polations what doubtless his own experience had shown him, viz., that ' a king must have his tools to * reign with — his realm must be well peopled — full * manned.' Unless there are priests, soldiers, and workmen — ' gebedmen. fyrdmen, and weorcmen' — no king, he says, can show his craft.1 We are to take it, then, that population was still scanty, that a thane's manor was not always as well stocked with husbandmen as the necessities of agri- culture required. The nation must be fed as well as defended, and both these economic needs were im- perative. How, then, was a thane to plant new settlers on his ' gesettes-land ' ? We have seen the Kelso monks furnishing their tenants with their outfit or ' stuht ' — the two oxen needful to till the husbandland of two bovates ; also a horse, and enough of oats, barley, and wheat for seed. The ' Rectitudines ' shows that in the tenth century this custom had long been followed by Saxon landlords. It further shows that the new tenants so created were settled on yard-lands, and called geburs. It states that in some places it is the custom that in settling the gebur on the land, there shall be given to him ' to land setene ' {i.e. as ' stuht ' or outfit) two oxen, one cow, six sheep, and seven acres sown on his yard-land or virgate. Then after the first year 1 Boethius, c. xvii. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 139 he performs the usual services. Having been supplied by his lord, not only with his stuht, but also even with tools for his work and utensils for his house, it is not surprising that on his death everything reverted to his lord. The gebur here answers exactly to the villanus of post-Domesday times.1 His normal holding is the yard-land or virgate. His stuht, which goes with the yard-land ' to setene,' or for outfit, is two oxen, one cow, &c; i.e. one ox for each of the two bovates which made up the yard-land. That this was the usual outfit of the yard-land, and that the yard-land at the same time was the one- fourth part of the sulung or full plough-land, in still earlier times than the date of the ' Rectitudines, re- ceives clear confirmation from an An«;lo-Saxon will dated a.d. 835, in which there is a gift of ' an half swzdung,' and ' to Bern londe iiii oxan & ii cy & 1 scepa,' &c.2 The half-sulung being the double of the yard-land, it is natural that the allowance for outfit in Chap, v 1 In the Codex Diplomaticus, No. MCCCLIV., there is an in- teresting document early in the eleventh century, the original of which is in the British Museum (MS. Cott. Tib. B. v. f. 76 b), written on the back of a much older copy of the Gospels, and con- taining particulars respecting the geburs on the Hatfield estate in Hertfordshire — their pedigrees, in fact — showing that they had inter- married with others of the follow- ing manors in Hertfordshire, viz. : — Tceceingawyrde ( Datch worth ) , Wealaden (King's or Paul's Wal- den), Welugun (Welwyn), Wad- tune (Watton), Munddene (Mun- don), Wilmundeslea (VVymondley), and Eslingadene (Essenden). The fact that it was worth while to preserve a record of the pedigree of the geburs shows that they were adscripts glebce. And there can be no doubt of the identity of the geburs of this document with the villani of the Domesday Survey of these various places. The pedigrees of villani or natioi were carefully kept in some manors even after the Black Death. 2 Cotton MS. Augustus, ii. 04. Fac-similes of Ancient Charters in the British Museum, Part II. 140 The English Village Community . Chap. \t. Services. Gafol. Gafol- yrth. Dene-work. the bequest of oxen and cows should be just double the outfit assigned by custom to the yard-land. It is obvious that the allotment to the whole sulung would be a full team of eight oxen. The gebur, then, having been ' set ' upon his yard land by his lord, and supplied with his setene or ' stuht, had to perform his services. What were these services? An examination of them as stated in the ' Recti- tudines ' will show at once their close resemblance to those of the holders of virgates in villenage in post- Domesday times. They may be classified in the same way as these were classified. Some of them are called gafol ; i.e. they were tributes in money and in kind, and in work at plough- ing, &c, in the nature rather of rent, rates, and taxes than anything else. They were as follows : At Michaelmas x. gafol-pence. At Martinmas xxiii. sesters of barley and ii. bens.1 At Easter a young sbeep, or u.d. Of gafol-ploughing (gafol-jrfi) to plougb tbree acres, and sow it from bis barn. Tbe beartb-penny. With anotber gebur to feed a bound. Six loaves to tbe swineherd of tbe manor, when be tabes tbe flock to pasture. In some places the gebur gives honey-gafol, in some mete-gafol, and in some ale-gafol. Next there were the precarice or bene-work, extra special services : To plougb three acres 'to bene' (adp)-ecem), and two to 'goersyro'e.'2 1 This may be read 23d. and a sester of barley; or, perhaps, 20d. and three sestra3 of barley. But the best reading seems to be that in tbe text. 2 This is a word often used in The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. Ill Lastly, the chief services were the regular week Cl,AP- v- work (wic-weorc), generally limited to certain days a Week- week according to the season. ' He shall work for week-work two days at such work as he is hid ' throughout the year, each week ; and in August three days' week- ' work, and from Candlemas to Easter three days.' These were the services of the qebur or villanus. Thirt.y u acres in and we may gather that his yard-land embraced the yawl-land ; usual thirty acres or strips, i.e. ten strips in each of field. the three common fields of his village. This seems to follow from the fact that his outfit included seven acres sown' These seven acres were no doubt on the wheat-field which had to be sown before winter. It was seven acres, and not ten, because the crop on the other three counted as ' gafolyrS ' to his lord, and this was not due the first season. The oats or beans on the second or spring-sown field he could sow for himself. The third field was in fallow. The only start he required was therefore the seven acres of wheat which must be sown before winter. So much for the gebur ; now as to the cottier. The cottier tenant, in respect of his five acres Cottier's (more or less), rendered similar services on an humbler fi°e ^J es, scale. His week-work was on Mondays each week throughout the year, three days a week at harvest. He was free from land-gafol, but paid hearth-penny and church-scot at Martinmas. The nature of his work was the ordinary service of the geneat as re- and his services. later documents, and seems to mean I yafol for the share in the Lammas a certain amount of ploughing done meadows, and the gaful-yrth for th« as an equivalent for an allowance arahle in the yard-land. of grass. Grass-yrtli may he the | 142 The English Village Community. Chap. V. quired by his lord from time to time ; only, having no oxen, he was exempt from ploughing, as he was also after the Norman Conquest. Laws of King Ine. Geset- land. Yard-land. Gafol and V. THE DOUBLE AND ANCIENT CHARACTER OF THE SER- VICES OF THE GEBUR GAFOL AND WEEK-WORK. Eeturning to the services of the gebur, stress must be laid upon their double character. Like the later villanus he paid a double debt to his lord in respect of his yard-land and outfit, or ' setene' — (1) gafol; (2) week-work. This is a point of great importance at this stage of the inquiry ; for it gives us the key to the mean- ing of an otherwise almost unintelligible passage in the laws of King Ine, which bears directly upon the matter in hand. This passage immediately follows those already quoted, requiring one-half or more of the land of the absentee landlord to be ' gesettes land.' It follows in natural order after this requirement, because it evidently relates to the process of in- creasing the number of tenants on the gesettes land, so introducing new geburs or villain, with new yard- lands or virgates, into the village community. The clause is as follows : B6 DYRDE L0NDE8. liif mon jepinjao" ?ypbe landep o)>] 68. If a gesithcund man be driven off", it must be from tbe botl, not the setene. Now the importance of these passages can hardly The manor be exaggerated ; for, if we may trust the genuineness JSjJ*" of the laws of Kinsj Ine,1 they show more clearly than seventh t , . century. anything else could do, that in the seventh century — 400 years before the Domesday Survey — the manor was already to all intents and purposes what it was afterwards. They show that at that early date part of the land was in the lord's demesne and part let out to tenants, who when supplied by the lord with everything — their homestead and their yard-land — owed, not only customary tribute or gafol, but also ' weorc' or service to the lord; and how otherwise coidd this ' weorce ' be given then or afterwards 1 The opening clause of Ine's j counsel and teaching of his father laws, as republished by King Cenred, who resigned his kiugship Alfred with his own, states that | to Ine in a.d. 688. they were recorded under the \ 144 The English Village Community. Chap. v. except in the shape of labour on the lord's demesne, as is described in the ' Rectitudines ' ? It is worth while to notice that while the double debt of both gafol and week-work was due from the gebur or villanus proper, and the week-work was the most servile service, yet even the mere payment of gafol was the sign of a submission to an overlordship. It had a servile taint about it, as well it might, being paid apparently part in kind and part in work. As the class of free hired labourers had not yet been born into existence under these early Saxon economic con- ditions, in times when the theows were the servants, so the modern class of farmers or free tenants at a rent of another's land had not yet come into being. It was the ' ceorl ' who lived on ' gafol land,' l and to pay gafol was to do service, though of a limited kind. The Saxon translators of the Gospels rendered the question, ' Doth your master pay tribute ? ' 2 by the words ' gylt he gafol ? ' And they used the same word gafol also in translating the counter question, * Of whom do kings take tribute, of their own people or of aliens ? ' So when Bede described the northern conquest of Ethelfred, king of the Northumbrians, over the Britons in a.d. 603, and spoke of the inhabitants as being either exterminated or subjugated, and their lands as either cleared for new settlers or made tributary to the English, King Alfred in his translation expressed Gafol a servile tribute. Bede 1 Alfred and Gut brum's Peace, Thorpe, p. 0(>. ' "We hold all equally dear, English and Danish, at viii. half marks of pure gold, except the " ccorle pe on gafolrlande sit, and heora liesmgum " (lysingori) ; they also are equally dear at cc. shillings,' i.e. they are ' twihinde men.' 2 Matt. xvii. 25. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 145 the latter alternative by the words ' set to gafol ' — to ClIA''- v- gafulgyldum gesette.1 No doubt the Teutonic notion of a subjugated people was that of a people reduced to serfdom or villenage. They — the conquerors — were the nation, the freemen. The conquered race were the aliens, subjected to gafol and servitude. Thus, recurring to the Saxon translation of the Parable parable of 'the unjust steward,' one may recognise unjust6 how perfectly naturally everything seemed to the steward-' translators to transfer itself to a Saxon thane's estate, and to translate itself into Saxon terms.2 The ' hlaford ' of the ' tun ' or manor had his ' tun- i gerefa ' or reeve, just as the Saxon thane had. The land in villenage was occupied not by mere trade debtors of the lord, as our version has it, but by ' gafol-gyldan ' — tenants to whom land and goods of the lord had been entrusted, as Saxon tenants were entrusted with their ' setene,' and who, therefore, paid gafol or tribute in kind. The natural gafol of the tenant of an olive-garden would be so many ' sesters ' of oil. The tenant of corn land would pay for gafol, like the English tenant of a yard-land inter alia so 1 Bcda, i. c. 34 :— Nemo enim in tri- bunis, nemo in regibus plures eorum terras, exterminates vel sub- jugatis indigenis, aut tribut arias genti Ang- lorum, aut habitabiles fecit. 8 Luke xvi. Ne pasr aeppe aenig cyning ne eal- bopman -p maheopa lanba uce amaepbe -] him co jepealbe un- beppeobbe poppon fie he hi co japulgylbum gerecce on Kngel Seobbe. oppe op heopa lanbe abpap. Never was there ever any king nor ealdorman that more their lands extermi- nated, and to liia power subjected, for that he them to gafol set to the English people, or else off their land drove. 146 The English Village Community. Chap. v. many < mittan ' of wheat ; and it was the duty of the unrighteous ' tun-gerefa,' or reeve of the manor, to collect the gafol from these tenants, as it was the duty of the Saxon thane's reeve to gather the dues from his servile tenants. How many otherwise free tenants hired yard -lands without becoming geburs, and rendering the full week- work as well as gafol, we do not know. Except in the Danish district they seem to have left, as we have seen, no trace behind them on most manors in the Domesday Survey. The fact already mentioned, that the yard-lands of geburs, who owed both gafol and services, were sometimes called ' gyrda gafollandes^ shows how completely the gafol and the services had become united as coincidents of a common villein tenure. All villein tenants were apparently ' geneats ' and paid ' gafol,' and there is a passage in the laws of King Edgar which states that if a geneat-man after notice should persist in neglecting to pay his lord's gafol, he must expect that his lord in his anger will spare neither his goods nor his life.1 Complete- On the whole, leaving out of notice doubtful ness of the , . , ,, evidence and exceptional tenants, as well we may, we are now seventh *n a Positi°n to state generally what were the main ?eatury. classes of villein tenants in early Saxon times, and what were their holdings on the land in villenage, whether it were known as geneat, or geset, or gafol land. First, the ' Bectitudines,' of the tenth century, de- scribes, as we have seen, these tenants as all geneats or villeins, and records their services in general terms. 1 Supplement to Edgar's Laws, i. Thorpe, p. 115. The Saxon Manor and Serfdom. 147 It then divides them into classes, just as the Domes- c"u v day Survey does. And the two chief classes of the geneats are the geburs and the cottiers. These two classes are evidently the villani and the bordarii or cottiers of the Domesday Survey. Secondly, the same document describes the hold- ings of these two classes. It speaks of the cottiers as holding mostly five acres each — sometimes more and sometimes less — in singular coincidence with the Domesday Survey and later evidence. And it describes the gebur, as we have seen, as holding a yard-land or virgate, the typical holding of the Domesday villanus, and as having allotted to him as ' outfit ' two oxen, just as was the case with the Kelso husbandmen. Thirdly, the laws of King Ine bring back the evi- dence to the seventh century by their incidental mention of the yard-land as a typical holding on geset-land; and also of half -hides1 and hides, as well as of geneats2 and geburs,3 with their gafol and weorc. When this concurrence of the evidence of the tenth and the seventh century is duly considered, it will be seen how complete is the proof that in the seventh century the West Saxon estate, though called a ' tun ' or a ' ham,' was in reahty a manor in the Norman sense of the term — an estate with a village community in villenage upon it under a lord's juris- diction. 1 Thorpe, p. 53, where they are mentioned as sometimes held hy even Wilisc7nen,'1 i.e. tenants not of Saxon hlood. 2 Thorpe, p. 50. 8 Ibid. p. 46. 1 2 ^ Chap. V. Manor of Tidenham. Sax< n since A.T). 577, 148 The English Village Community. VI. SERFDOM ON A MANOR OF KING EDWY. The evidence hitherto given on the nature of the serfdom on Anglo-Saxon manors has been of a general character. We are fortunately able to confirm and illustrate it by reference to actual local instances. The first example is that of the manor of Tiden- ham, and it derives a more than ordinary value from its peculiar geographical position. The parish of Tidenham comprises the wedge- shaped corner of Gloucestershire, shut in between the Wye and the Severn, where they join and widen into the Bristol Channel ; while to the north-east, on its land side, it was surrounded by the Forest of Dean. In the belief of local antiquaries, the Eoman road from Gloucester to Caerleon-upon-TJsk — the key to South Wales — passed through it as well as the west- ern continuation of the old British road of Akeman Street from the landing-place of the Severn, opposite Aust (where St. Augustine is said to have met the Welsh Christians) to the further crossing-place on the Wye. Lastly, upon it was the southern end of Ojfra's Dyke, the mysterious rampart which, commencing thus at the mouth of the Wye, extended to the mouth of the Dee.1 The manor probably has been in English hands ever since about the time when, according to the Saxon Chronicle, after Deorham battle in a.d. 577, Bath, Gloucester, and Cirencester were wrested from 1 For the archaeology of Tiden- ham see Vroceedimji of the Cottes- wold Naturalists' Field Club, 1874-5, and Mr. Ormerod*s Archaeological Memoirs relating to the district adjacent to the confluence of the Severn and the Wye. London, 1861 (r.ot published). THE MANOR OF TIDENHAM & C GRAHAh Manor of King Edwy. 149 the Welsh by Ceawlin, king of the West Saxons. C,IAP- v- According to the Welsh legends of the Liber Lan- davensis1 this was about the time when the tli<>- of Llandaff was curtailed by the Wye instead of the Severn becoming the boundary between the two king- doms. It may therefore have been for nearly five centuries before the Norman Conquest the extreme corner of West Saxon England on the side of South Wales. Conquered probably by Ceawlin, or soon after wa8» the year 577, the manor of Tidenham seems to have mauor, remained folkland or terra regis of the West Saxon kings, till Offa conquered it from them and gave his name to the dyke upon it. One of its hamlets bore, as we shall find, the name of Cinges tune, and Tiden- ham Chase remained a royal chase till after the Norman Conquest. The manor itself was granted by King Edwy in gfa'ffi a.d. 956 by charter2 to the Abbot of Bath, under a.d. 956, to whose name it is registered in the Domesday Survey. 0f Bath. It is in this charter of King Edwy that the descrip- tion of the manor and of the services of the tenants is contained. The services must be regarded, there- fore, as those of a royal manor before it was handed over to ecclesiastical hands. The boundaries as appended to the charter are dar1es°stiii given below,3 and may still, with slight exceptions, be JJ ^ traced on the Ordnance Survey. 1 Pp. 374-6. 2 Kemble's Cod. Dip. COCOLII. (vol. ii. p. 327). 3 Codex Dip. iii. p. 444 ; App. CCCOLTI. ' Dis synd Sa landge- mfera to Dyddenhanie. Of Waege- mud'an to iwes heaidan; of iwes heafuen on Stanraewe ; of Stan- raewe on hwitan heal ; of hwitan heale on iwdene ; of iwdene on bradai. mor ; of bradan mor on Twyfyrd ; of Twyfyrd on astege pul ut innan Ssefern.' 150 The English Village Community. Chap- y- The northern limit on the Severn is described as Astege pul, now, after a thousand years, known as Ashwell Grange Pill, the puis of 1,000 years ago and the present pills being the little streams which wear away a sort of miniature tidal estuary in the mud- banks as they empty themselves into the Severn and the Wye. Numbers of pills are marked in the Ord- nance map, and as many ' puis ' are mentioned in the boundaries of Saxon charters and those inserted in the Liber Landavensis. After the boundaries, under the heading ' Divi- * siones et consuetudines in DyddanhammeJ l the docu- ment proceeds to state that ' at Dyddanhamme are inland and ' xxx. hides, ix. of inland and xxi. of gesettes land.' C/5 The manor was therefore in the tenth century divided into demesne land and land in villenage. Next are stated separately the contents of each hamlet on the manor, as follows : — Yard- At Street are xii. hides — xxvii. gyrda gafoUandes, and on the Severn laQds. xxx. cytweras. At Middeltun are v. hides — xiiii. gyrda gafoUandes, xiiii. cytweras on the Severn, and ii. hsecweras on the Wye. H(bc- and At the Cinges tune are v. hides — xiii. gyrda gafoUandes, and i. hide cyt- weirs. above the dyke, which is now also gafolland ; and that outside the hamme is still part inland and partgesett to gafol to 'scipwealan.' At the Cinges tune on the Severn are xxi. cytweras, and on the Wye xii. At the Bishops tune are iii. hides, and xv. cytweras on the Wye. At Landcawet are iii. hides and ii. hsecweras on the Wye, and ix. cytweras. Thus this manor, like the Winslow manor, had hamlets or small dependencies upon it, and these are 1 Cod. Dip. iii. p. 450, where they are evidently misplaced. Manor of King Bdwy. 151 still traceable on the map. Street is still Stroat on the CnAP- v old Eoman street — the Via Julia (?) — from Glou- The ham- lets. cester to Caerleon. The Cinges tune, now Sudbury, lay on the high wedge-shaped southern promontory above the cliffs, between the Wye and Severn where they join; and it lies as it did then, part on one side and part on the other side of Offa's Dyke, as if the dyke had been cut through its open fields. Its fisheries were naturally some on the Severn and some on the Wye. The ' Bishop's tune ' is still traceable in Bishton farm. Lastly, Llancaut, the only hamlet on this Saxon manor 900 years ago with a Welsh name, bears its old name still. This hamlet is surrounded almost entirely by a bend of the Wye, and its situation backed by its woods (coit=wood) may well have protected it from destruction at the time of the Saxon conquest. Next, it is clear that the geset land in the open fields round each ' time ' or hamlet, except at Llan- caut and Bishop's tune, was divided, as usual, into yard -lands — gyrda gafollandes. These yard-lands and the open fields have long since been swept away by the enclosure of the parish. Besides the vard-lands there were belonging to The fishing j weirs. each hamlet the numerous fisheries — cytweras and hcecweras — some on the Severn and some on the Wye. What were these ' cyt ' and ' hcee ' weirs ? They certainly were not the ancient dams or banks across the river which are now called ' weirs,' over which the tidal wave sweeps, thus— ' Hushing half the habhling Wye.' It is impossible that there can have been so many of these as there were cytweras and hcecweras 900 152 The English Village Community. Chap^v. years ago — as many as thirty together at Street, fourteen at Middletune, and twenty-one at Cingestune. The fact is that the old Saxon word wera meant any structure for entrapping fish or aiding their capture. And no doubt arrangements which would not be called ' weirs ' now were so called then. The words cyt and hose weras seem to point rather to wattled basket and hedge weirs than to the solid structures now called weirs. But the best illustration of what they were may be derived from the arrangements now at work for catching salmon in the Wye and Severn. Cytweras. The stranger who visits this locality will find here and there across the muddy shore of the Severn struc- tures which at a distance look like breakwaters ; but on nearer inspection he will find them to be built up of rows two or three deep of long tapering baskets arranged between upright stakes at regular distances. These baskets are called putts or butts or kypes, and are made of long rods wattled together by smaller ones, with a wide mouth, and gradually tapering almost to a point at the smaller or butt end. These putts are placed in groups of six or nine between each pair of stakes, with their mouths set against the outrunning stream ; and each group of them be- tween its two stakes is called a ' puttcher.' The word * puttcher ' can hardly be other than a rapidly pronounced putts weir, i.e. a weir made of putts. If the baskets had been called ' cyts ' instead of ' putts,' the group would be a cytweir. So, e.g., the thirty cytweras at Street would represent a breakwater such as may be seen there now, consisting of as many putt- chers. This use of what may be called basket weirs r ■ *■■• V ^V Manor of King Edwy. 153 Ohap. v. is peculiar to the Wye and the Severn, and has been aacwerw adopted to meet the difficulty presented by the un- usual volume and rapidity of the tidal current. Then as to the hcecweras there is nothing unusual in the use of barriers or fences of wattle, or, as it is still called, hackle, to produce an eddy, or to entrap the fish. Thus a statute (1 Geo. I. c. 18, s. 14) relating to the fisheries on the Severn and the Wye uses the following words : 'If any person shall make, 1 erect, or set any bank, dam, hedge, stank, or net 4 across the same,' &c. These wattled hedges or hackle -weirs are some- times used to guide the fish into the puttchers, but generally in the same way as more permanent struc- tures on the Wye, now called cribs, to make an eddy in which the fish are caught from a boat in what is called a stop-net. This mode of fishing is also peculiar to the Wye Salmon and Severn. The boat is fixed by two long stakes sideways across the eddy, and a wide net, like a bag with its open end stretched between two poles, is let down so as to offer a wide open mouth to the stream which carries the closed end of the bag-net under the boat. When a salmon strikes the net the open end is raised out of the water, and the fish is taken out behind. This clumsy process of catching salmon is the ancient traditional method used in the Wye and Severn fisheries, and so tenaciously is it adhered to that the fishermen can hardly be induced to substi- tute more efficient modern improvements. So much for the cytweras and the lueciceras. The fisheries are now almost exclusively devoted to salmon. About the date of the Norman Conquest 154 The English Village Community. Chap. V. the manor of Tidenham was let on lease by the Bishop of Bath to Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury,1 and as a portion of the rent reserved was 6 porpoises (merswin) and 30,000 herrings, it would seem at first sight that the main fisheries there were for herrings rather than salmon, but it is more probable that the lease was a mutual arrangement whereby the arch- bishop's table was provided with salmon from the west, and the monks of Bath with herrings from the east. Turning from the fisheries to the services, they are described as follows :2 — General services of geneats. Of Dyddankamme gebyreo' micel weoi-craiden. Se geneat sceal wyrcan swa on lande, swa of lande, hweSer swa him man byt, and ridan and aue- rian, and lade kedan, drafe drifan, and fela dSra ]>inga don. To Tidenkam belong many services. Tke geneat skall work as well on land as off land, wkickever ke is bid; and ride, and carry and lead loads, and drive droves, and do otker things. And after thus stating, to begin with, the general services of all geneats, the document proceeds, like the ' Rectitudines,' to describe the special services of the gebur, or holder of a yard-land. Services of ijdiurs. Week- work. Se gebur sceal his riht don. He sceal erian healfne secer to wiceworce, and rsecan sylf Sset sa;d on klafordes berne gekalne to cyrcscette, sa kweo'ere of kisagenum berne. To werbolde xl. masra 0(5o*e an foxier gyrda; ofitieviii. geocu byld. iii. ebban tyne. iEcertyninge xv. g\rda, oftSe diclie fiftyne; and dicie i. gyrde burkkeges, ripe doer kealfke secer, mawe healihe; on odran weorcan wyrce, a be weorces maetSe. The gebur shall do his ' riht! He shall plough a half-acre as week-work, and kimseif prepare tke seed in tke lord's barn ready for kirkskot, or else from kis own barn. For weir-building 40 large rods or 1 load of small rods, or build 8 yokes and wattle 3 ebbs. Of acre-fencing 15 yards, or ditck 15; and ditck 1 yard of burk-kedge, reap 1 acre and a kalf, mow kalf an acre. At otker work, work as tke work requires. > Cod. Dip. DOCO., XXII. 2 Cod. Dip. iii. p. 4u0. Manor of King Edwy. 155 These are the various details of his week-work. Chap, v, Then follow the ^a/b^-payments. Sylle vi. penegas ofer 6stre, Pay Qd. after Easter, half a Gafol. healfne sester hunies to Hlaf- sester of honey (or mead ?) at insessan. vi. systres inealtes to Mar- Lammas. 6 sesters of malt at Mar- tines nioesse, an cliwen gddes nett- tinmas, 1 clew of good net-yarn. On gernes. On (5am sylfum lande stent the same laud, if he has 7 swine, lie se'Se vii.swyn hsebhe Saethesylleiii. pays 3, and so forth at that rate, and swa for'S a Sset teoSe, and Soes and nevertheless give mast dues if uaSuhes msestenrtedene Sonne . there be mast, msesten hed. I It will be observed that in their weeh-work the geburs of Tidenham, in addition to strictly agricul- tural services, had to provide the materials for the puttchers and hedge-weirs, as well as other requisites for the fisheries. What the eight geocu to be built may have been is doubtful ; but the tyning or wattling of three ebbs was at once explained on the spot by the lessee of the fisheries, who pointed out that when hackle weirs were used, three separate wattled hedges would always be needed, as, owing to the very various heights of the tide, the hedge must be differently placed for the spring tides, the middle tides, and the neap tides re- spectively. The ' week-work' was shown by the ' Rectitudines ' to be the chief service of the gebur, and this work, added to the gafol, made the holder of the yard -land into a gebur, according to the laws of Ine. Two things are very striking about the week- work No K™4*- on the manor of Tidenham. (1) There is no limit to week-work three days a week more or less, as in the ' Recti- days. iudines.* (2) There is a clear adaptation of the week- 150 The English Village Community. Chap. V. No benc- work. Gafol chiefly in produce : honey, &c. Compari- son of services in the thir- teenth century. work to local circumstances. In particular the fisheries have a prominent regard in its arrangement. As described in the ' Rectitudines,' the work varied accord- ing to the customs of each place. So much for the ' week-work.' Next, there were at Tidenham no ' precarice,' or 1 bene ' works, which formed so prominent a feature in the later services. When the week-work was not limited to some days only, clearly there was no need or room for these additional services. Lastly, as to the gafol — this formed a prominent feature of the weorc-rceden of the Tidenham yard- land. It consisted mainly of the produce of the land, like the gafol of the gafolgylders in the Saxon translation of the parable of ' the unjust steward.' Honey and malt, or ale, and yarn and pork — these, as we shall see by-and-by, were the chief products of this and the ad- joining districts of Wales. These, then, were the services of the geburs of Tidenham in respect of their yard-lands in a.d. 950, while the manor was still in royal hands just before it was handed over to the Abbot of Bath. Now let us compare these services with the services on the same manor 350 years afterwards, in the time of Edward I. An Inquisitio post mortem of the 35th year of Edward I. enables us to make this comparison.1 The following is an abstract of the services of a tenant who held a messuage and xviii. acres of land in villenage (probably a half-virgate). 1 Record Office, Chancery Inquisitions post mortem, Anno 35 Edw. I. No. 40 6. Gloucestria, § Manerium de Tudenham. Manor of King Ed toy. 157 His week-work was — Chip. v. 6 days in every other week for xxxv. weeks iu the year from Michaelmas to Midsummer, except the festival weeks ot Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost ; 87£ works. 2£ days every week for 6 weeks from Midsummer to Gules of August ; ] 5 works. 3 days every week for 8 weeks from Gules of August to Michaelmas ; 24 works. And of this week-work hetween Michaelmas and Christmas, 1 clay's work every other week was to he ploughing and harrowing u. half-acre. Each ploughing was accounted for a day's work. Then as to his precaria?, — He made 1 precaria called ' cherched,' and he ploughed and har- rowed a half-acre for corn, and sowed it with 1 bushel of corn from his own seed ; and in the time of harvest he had to reap and bind and stack the produce, receiving one sheaf for himself on account of the halt-acre, ' as much as can be bound with a binding of the same corn, cut near the land.' And he had to plough 1 acre for oats, and this was accounted for 2 days' manual work. And he made another precaria, ploughing a half-acre with his own plough for winter sowing with as many oxen as he possessed, so that there should be a team of 8 oxen. But if he had no oxen he did not plough. And he made [several other precaria of various kinds]. Lastly came his gafol, &c. He gave i. hen, which was called ' wodehen,' at Christmas. And 5 eggs at Easter. And Id. for every yearling pig, and \d. for those only of half-year, by way of pannage. He paid ... for every horse or mare sold. And viii. gallons of beer at every brewing. And he could not marry his daughter without licence. Now, comparing the services on the manor of Tidenham at these dates 300 years apart, at which period was the service most complete serfdom? at the later date, when the week-work of the villeins was limited to two and a half or three days a week, and in addition he made precaria? or extra works ; or at the earlier date, when his week-work was unlimited \9& 158 The English Village Community. Chap. v. as to the days, and therefore there was no room for the extra work? Saxon ser- Surely the unlimited week-work marked the most complete, complete serfdom. Surely the later services, limited in their amount and commutable into money pay- ments, were clearly a mitigated service fast growing into a fixed money rent. In fact, the gebur or villa- mis was fast growing into a mere customary tenant in the time of Edward I. Indeed, he is not called in the ' Inquisition ' a ' vittanus,' but a ' custumarius,' and such he was. He was halfway on the road to free- dom. Another sign of the times was this, that at the later date, side by side with the customary tenants on the land in villenage, a whole host of libere tenentes had already grown up upon the lord's demesne, not, as we have more than once observed, necessarily liberi homines .at all, but some of them villein tenants or custumarii holding additional pieces of free land of the lord's demesne. Of these free tenants there were none at the earlier period. So that the gebur, with his weorc-rceden 100 years and more before the Norman Conquest, was much more clearly a serf, and rendered far more complete and servile ser- vices than his successor in the thirteenth century, with the Black Death and Wat Tyler's rebellion in the near future before him. Finally, let us look backward and ask how long this more complete serfdom had lasted on the manor of Tidenham. They pro- If in the laws of K\nrim, an to middan-wintra, oSeru to Eastran, )>ridde to Gangdagan. Comparing these services with the other examples, they do not seem to be any more the services of free- men, or any less those of serfs. They seem to plainly bear the ordinary characteristics of what is meant by serfdom wherever it is found. There is the gafol and unlimited. there is the week-work ; and the latter is not limited to certain days each week, as in the ' Bectitudines,' but 4 each week, except three in the year, they are to work. AS THEY AEE BID.' And these are the services — this is the serfdom — on a manor which was part of the royal domain of King Alfred, which for three successive reigns at least, and probably for generations earlier, had been royal domain, and now by the last royal holder is handed over, with the men that were upon it, to the perpetual, never-dying lordship of a monastery, as an eternal inheritance. Finally, the evidence of these Saxon documents — The chain the ' Bectitudines ' and the charters of Tidenham and jJ^SjJJ8 Hysseburne — read in the light of the later evidence and of the earlier laws of King Ine, is so clear that it seems needful to explain how it has happened that M 2 164 The English Village Community. Chap. V Hi there lias ever been any doubt as to the servile nature of the services of the holders of yard-lands in Saxon times. The explanation is simple. Mr. Kemble quotes from all these documents in his chapter on ' Lcenland ; ' ] but for want of the clear knowledge what a yard-land was, it never seems to have occurred to him that in these services of the geburs or holders of yard-lands we have the services of the later villani of the Domesday Survey — the services of the holdings embracing by far the greater part of the arable land of England. Dr. Leo, in his work on the ' Reditu- dines, confesses that he does not know what is meant by the yard-land of the gebur.2 It is only when, pro- / ceeding from the known to the unknown, we get a / firm grasp of the fact that the yard-land was the y normal holding of the gebur or villanus, that it was a r\ \ bundle of normally thirty scattered acres in the open n ) fields, that it was held in villenage, and that these were the services under which it was held of the I manorial lord of the ham or tun to which it be- longed— it is only when these facts are known and their importance realised, that these documents be- come intelligible, and take their proper place as links in what really is an unbroken chain of evidence. VIII. THE TIIE0WS OR SLAVES ON THE LORDS DEMESNE. The theows, One word must be said of the theows or slaves on class. the lord's demesne — the thane's inland — lest we should 1 Saxons in England, pp. 319 et. seq. 2 H. Leo, lirctitudiitrs. Halle, 1842, p. 231. ' Wenijjstens weisz icb " on his gyrde landes " (auf seiner rute des gutes, oder des landes) an dieser stelle niclit andera zu er- kliiren.' The Theows or Slave Class. L65 forget the existence of this lowest class of all, in con- (',m- v- trast with whose slavery the geburs and cottiers on the geneat land, notwithstanding their serfdom, were ifreeJ These latter were prsedial serfs 'adscript! gleba3,' but not slaves. The theows were sla\ bought and sold in the market, and exported from English ports across the seas as part of the commerci.-i 1 produce of the island. Some of the theows were slaves by birth. But it seems to have been a not uncommon thing for freemen to sell themselves into slavery under the pressure of want.1 The 'servi' of the Domesday Survey were no doubt The Sfrvi the successors of the Saxon theows. And as in the Domes lay Survey the servi are mostly found on the demesne land of the lord, so probably in Saxon times the theows were chiefly the slaves of the manor-house. Most of the farm work on the thane's inland, espe- cially the ploughing, was done no doubt by the ser- vices of the villein tenants ; but as, in addition to the villein ploughs, there were the great manorial plough teams, so also there were theows doing slave labour of various kinds on the home farm of the lord, and maintained at the lord's expense. In the bilingual dialogue of iElfric,2 written in Saxon and Latin late in the tenth century as an educa- tional lesson, in the reply of the ' yrthling ' or plough- man to the question put as to the nature of his daily work, a touching picture is given of the work of a theow conscious of his thraldom : — 1 See Kemble's Saxons in Eng- land, i. p. 196. 2 British Museum Cotton MS. Tib. A. III. f. 58 b. For the text of this passage I am indebted to Mi Thompson of the British Museum 166 The English Village Community. Chap. V. Feelings of the tlieow. Hwaet saegest ]m yrjuinge ? IIu begsest )m weorc ]>in ? Eala leof hlaford ]>earle ic deorfe ic ga ut on dasgraed ]>y- wende oxon to felda and iugie big to syl. Nys hyt swa stearc winter ]>set ic durre lutian aet liam for ege hlafordes mines ac geiukodan oxan and gefaestnodon sceare and cultre mit J'aere syl aelce daeg ic sceal erian fulne sej'er (aecer) o]>]>e mare. Haefst ]'u aenigne geferan ? Ic kaebbe sumne cnapan ]>y wende oxan mid gad isene ]>e eacswilce nu has vs for cylde and breame. Hwaet mare dest ]m on dseg ? Gewyslice ]>aenne mare ic do. Ic sceal fyllan binnan oxan mid big and waeteriau big and sceasn (scearn) beora beran ut. big big micel gedeorf ys byt geleof micel gedeorf bit ys forfam ic neom freob. What sayest tbou, plowman ? How dost tbou do thy work ? Ob, my lord, bard do I work. I go out at davbreak driving the oxen to field, and I yoke them to the plough. Nor is it ever so hard winter that I dare loiter at home, for fear of my lord, but the oxen yoked, and the ploughshare and coulter fastened to the plough, every day must I plough a full acre, or more. Hast tbou any comrade ? I have a boy driving the oxen with an iron goad, who also is hoarse with cold and shouting. What more dost thou in the day? Verily then I do more. I must fill the bin of the oxen with hay, and water them, and carry out the dung. Ha ! ha ! hard work it is, hard work it is ! because 1 am not free. Perhaps some day his lord will provide him with an outfit of oxen, give him a yard-land, and make him into a gebur instead of a theow. This at least seems to be his yearning. Folkland, or terra regis, in- cluded royal hams :.r manors. IX. THE CREATION OF NEW MANORS. We have hitherto spoken only of the manors. Are we therefore to conclude that there was no land extra-manorial? It may be asked whether ' folkland ' was not extra- manorial. Now in one sense all that belonged to the ancient demesne of the Crown was folkland and extra-ma- norial. All estates with the villages and towns upon them, which had no manorial lord but the king, Creation of New Manors. 1 67 were in the demesne of the Crown, as also were the Ohap.v. royal forests. Formerly, while there were many petty kings in England, and before the kingship had attained its unity and its full growth, i.e. before it had, as we are told by historians, absorbed in itself exclusively the sole representation of the nation, the term folkland was apparently applied to all that was afterwards included in the royal demesne. All that had not become the hoc-land or private property either of members of the royal house or of a monastery or of a private person was still folkland. And it would appear that the kings had originally no power to alienate this folkland without the consent of the great men of their witan. But inasmuch as the royal demesne or folkland included an endless number of manors as well as forest, it cannot properly be said that it was neces- sarily extra-manorial. More correctly it was in the manor of the king. The king was its manorial lord, and the geburs and cottiers upon it were geneats or villani of the king. The Tidenham and Hysseburne manors were both of them manors of the roya de- mesne until they were granted by charter to their new monastic owners. Now, it is clear that in the course of time, after that in a similar way grant after grant had been made of ' ham ' after ' ham,' with its little territory — its ager, or agellus, or ageUulus, as the ecclesiastical writers were wont to describe it in the charters — to the king's thanes or to monasteries, as boc-land or private estate, the number of ' hams ' still remaining folkland would grow less and less. 168 The English Village Community. Chap. v. jn ^g meantime the royal forests were managed by royal foresters under separate laws and regulations of great severity, whilst the royal hams or manors These were were put under the management of a resident steward, inlaid to propositus or vilUcus — in Saxon ' tun-gerefaj — or reward for were let out f°r u^e as inland to neighbouring great services. men or their sons, or to thanes in the royal service. This granting of life-leases of folkland or hams on the royal demesne seems to have been a usual mode of rewarding special military services, and Bede bitterly complained that the profuse and illegitimate grants which were wheedled out of the king for pre- tended monastic purposes had already in his time seriously weakened the king's power of using the royal estates legitimately as a means of keeping up his army and maintaining the national defences.1 To be able to provide some adequate maintenance for the thanes, on whose services he relied, was a king's necessity ; for well might King Alfred enforce the truth of the philosophy of his favourite Boethius by exclaiming that every one may know how ' full miser- able and full unmighty ' kings must be who cannot count upon the support of their thanes.2 But from the nature of the case it was inevitable that the area of folkland or royal demesne must con- stantly be lessened as each succeeding grant increased the area of the hoc-land. In other words, to use the later phrase, the tendency was not only for new Tendency for them to pass into private hands. 1 Bede's letter to Bishop Egbert, Smith, p. 309. ' Quod eiiiua turpe est dicere, tot sub nomine monaslerio- rum loca hi qui monacliicte vitse prorsus sunt expertesin euam ditio- neni acceperunt, sicut ipsi melius nostis, ut omnino desk locus, ubijilii yiobilium nut emeritorum militum possessionem accipere posavnt, &c. 2 King Alfred's Boethius, c. xxix. s. 10. Creation of New Manors. TOO manors to be created out of the royal forests and Ciup.v wastes, but also for more and more of the royal manors to pass from the royal demesne into private hands. Now there is a remarkable passage in one of King Alfred's treatises1 which incidentally throws some sketch oi light upon this process, and explains the way in !,f;pr which new manors may have been created. He de- scribes how the forest or a great wood provided every a oew ham. 1 Alfred's Blossom Gatherings out of St. Augustine. British Mu- seum, Vit. A. xv. f. 1 :— Gade- rode me ponne Hgclas 3 stupan sceaftas "j lohsceaftas 3 hylfa to selcurn para tola |»e ic mid pircan cufte j bohtiinbru 3 bolt timbru ~] to selcuni para peorca pe ic pyrcan cu'Se pa plitegostan treopo be fam dele '5e ic aberan meibte. ne com ic naj;er mid anre byrfiene ham ]>e me ne lyste ealne]»anepudeham brengan gip ic hyne ealne aberan meihte. on selcum treopo ic geseah hyeet hpugu pses pe ic ast bam beporfte. For )»am ic Isere ajlcne Sara pe maga si ■j ma[nigne] paen hsebbe -p be nienige to J»am ilcan puda par ic fias stutian sceaftas cearf. Fetige hym par ma j gefeftrige bys paenas mid fegruui gerdum pat be mage pin dan manigne smicerne pan j rnanig aenlic bus settan j fegerne tun timbrian j para "] peer murge ~j softe mid maege on- eardian aegSer ge pintras ge sume- ras spa spa ic nu ne gyt ne dyde. Ac se pe me laerde fam se pudu licode se maeg gedon j} ic softor eardian aegSer ge on pisuni laenan stoclife be pis paege o*a pbile pe ic on pisse peorulde beo ge eac on pain becan hame (5c he us gehaten hef6* purh scanctus augustinus j scs gregorius ■] scanctus Ieronimus j purh manege 06'Sre balie faedras spa ic gelyfe. eac ■J) be gedo for heora ealra earnum ^e segSer ge ]>isne peig gelimpfulran gedo ponne be ser pissurn pes ge hure mines modes eagan to pam on- gelihte ■f ic mage ribtne peig aie- dian to pam ecan hame ~] to pam ecan are ~] to pare ecan reste pe ua gehaten is purh pa hal^an fte- deras sie spa. Nis hit nan pundor peah m[an] sp[ylce] on timber ge- pirce 3 eac on pae[re] lade ~\ eac on paere bytlinge. ac aelcne man lyst sio'fian he senig cotlyf on his hla- fordes lsene myd his fultume getim- bred haef'S ~p he hine mote hpilum par ongerestan. ~j hunti^an. -j fulian. 3 fiscian. -j his on gehpilce pisan to paere laenan tilian seg] a r ge on se ge on lande 00" oS pone fyrst pe he bocland ~\ aece yrfe purh his hlafordes miltsegeearnige. spage- do se pile ga gidfola sefie egane ppib- ban. xl. pciEingum popgelben. 26. If [a man] slay a Icet of the best [class], let him pay lxxx. shil- lings : if he slay one of the second, let him pay lx. shillings: of the third, let him pay xl. shillings The word last is of doubtful meaning in this pas- sage. It might have reference to the Eoman lasti, or people of conquered tribes deported into Eoman provinces at the end of a war ; or it might refer to the liti or lidi — the servile tenants mentioned in so many of the early Continental codes. We are not yet in a position to decide. But in any case these lasts of King Ethelbert's laws were clearly of a semi- servile class here in Kent, as were the lidi in Frankish Gaul,1 for their ' wergild ' was distinctly less than that of the Kentish freemen.2 Whether they were a dif- 1 SeeM. Gue>ard's Introduction I pp. 250-75. to the Polyptyque del Abb6 Irminon, \ 2 The leod-geJd or wer-yild of a Result of Saxon Evidence. 175 ferent class from the geburs or villani, or identical c,,Ar- v* with them, it is not easy to decide. XL RESULT OP THE SAXON EVIDEXCE. The evidence of the earliest Saxon or Jutish laws thus leaves us with a strong presumption, if not actual certainty, that the Saxon ham or tun was the estate of a lord, and .not of a free village community, and that it was so when the laws of the Kentish men were first codified a few years after the mission of St. Augustine. It becomes, therefore, all but impossible that the The . , 1 manorial manorial character of English hams and tuns can have system not had an ecclesiastical origin. The codification of the asticai " laws was possibly indeed the direct result of eccle- origin' siastical influence no less than in the case of the Ala- mannic, and Bavarian, and Visigothic, and Burgundian, and Lombardic codes. In all these cases the codifi- cation partook, to some extent, of the character of a compact between the king and the Church. Eoom had to be made, so to speak, for the new ecclesiastical authority. A recognised status and protection had to be given to the Church for the first time, and this introduction of a new element into national arrange- ments was perhaps in some cases the occasion of the codification. This may be so ; but at the same time it is impossible that a new system of land tenure can have been suddenly introduced with the new reli- ' man ' was 200 shillings (see men- tion of the half leod-geld of c. shil- lings, s. 21). As regards the three grades of Icet.s, there were also three grades of female theows of the king (see 8. 10-11), the cup-bearer, the grinding-theow, and the lowest class. See also s. 10, where again there is mention of three classes of theows, each with its value. 176 The English Village Community. ChakV. gion. The property granted to the Church from the first was already manorial. A ham or a tun could not be granted to the Church by the king, or an earl, unless it already existed as a manorial estate. The monasteries became, by the grants which now were showered down upon them, lords of manors which were already existing estates, or they could not have been transferred. Further, looking within the manor, whether on the royal demesne or in private hands, it seems to be The hold- clear that as far back as the evidence extends, i.e. the yard-lands time of King Lie, the holdings — the yard-lands — were eSfdom ne^ m villenage, and were bundles of a recognised number of acre or half-acre strips in the open field, handed down from one generation to another in single succession without alteration. Now let it be fully understood what is involved in this indivisible character of the holding, in its devolu- tion from one holder to another without division among heirs. We have seen that the theory was that as the land and homestead, and also the setene, or outfit, were provided by the lord, they returned to the lord on the death of the holder. The lord granted the holding afresh, most often, no doubt, to the eldest son or nearest relation of the landholder on his pay- ment of an ox or other relief in recognition of the servile nature of the tenure, and thus a custom of primogeniture, no doubt, grew up, which, in the course of generations — how early we do not know — being sanctioned by custom, could not be departed from by the lord. The very possibility of this per- manent succession, generation after generation, of a single holder to the indivisible bundle of strips Result of Saxon Evidence. 177 called a yard-land or virgate, thus Beems to have '"^v- implied the servile nature of the holding. The lord became put in his servant as tenant of the yard-land, and pul in a successor when the previous one died. This ^V*10 seems to be the theory of it. It was probably ore- '1,lv^"»"f ii . allodial cisely the same course of things which ultimately pr< fty duced primogeniture in the holding of whole manors. The king put in a thane or servant of his (sometimes called the ' king's geneat'), or a monastery put in a steward or villicus to manage a manor. When he died his son may have naturally succeeded to the office or service, until by long custom the office became hereditary, and a succession or inheritance by primo- geniture under feudal law was the result. The bene- fice, or lam, or office was probably not at first generally hereditary; though of course there were many cases of the creation of estates of inheritance, or boc-lawl. by direct grant of the king. As we have seen from the passage quoted from Bede, the loen of an estate for life was the recognised way in which the king's thanes were rewarded for their services. Thus it seems that in the very nature of things the permanent equality of the holdings in yard-lands (or double, or half yard-lands), on a manor, was a proof that the tenure was servile, and that the com- munity was not a free village community. For imagine a free village community taking equal lots, and holding these lots, as land of inheritance, by allodial tenure, and with (what seems to have been the universal cus- tom of Teutonic nations as regards land of inheritance) equal division among heirs, how could the equality be possibly maintained? One holder of a yard-land would have seven sons, and another two, and another 178 The English Village Community. Chap. v. one> How could equality be maintained generation after generation ? What could prevent the multipli- cation of intricate subdivisions among heirs, breaking up the yard-lands into smaller bundles of all imagin- able sizes ? Even if a certain equality could be restored, which is very unlikely, at intervals, by a re-division, which should reverse the inequality pro- duced by the rule of inheritance, what would become of the yard-lands? How could the contents of the yard-land remain the same on the same estate for hundreds of years, notwithstanding the increase in the number of sharers in the land of the free village community ? We may take it, then, as inherently certain that the system of yard-lands is a system involving in its continuance a servile origin. The community of holders of yard-lands we may regard as a community of servile tenants, without any strict rights of in- heritance— in theory tenants at the will of their lord, becoming by custom adscripti glebce, and therefore tenants for life, and by still longer custom gaining a right of single undivided succession by primogeniture, or something very much like it. Result of Now we know that the holdings were yard-lands the Saxon ° ° evidence, and the holders geburs, rendering the customary gafol and week-work to their lords, in the time of King Ine, if we may trust the genuineness of his ' laws.' There was but an interval of 100 years between Ine and Ethelbert ; whilst Ine lived as near to the first con- quest of large portions of the middle districts of England as Ethelbert did to the conquest of Kent. The laws of Ethelbert, taken in connexion with the subsequent laws of Ine, and the later actual in- Result of Saxon Evidence. 170 stances of Saxon manors which have been examined, (1,u- v- form a connected chain, and bring back the links of ffo" the evidence of the manorial character of Saxon estates to the very century in which the greater part l^Zu,\- of the West Saxon conquests took place. The exist- x * afterwards ence of earl s and king's and men's hams and tuns ^i,ik into in the year of the codification of the Kentish laws, a.d. 602 or thereabouts, means their existence as a manorial type of estate in the sixth century ; and with the exception of the southern districts, the West Saxon conquests were not made till late in the sixth century. Surely there is too short an interval left unaccounted for to allow of great economic changes — to admit of the degeneracy of an original free vil- lage community if a widely spread institution, into a community in serfdom. So that the evidence strongly points to the hams and tuns having been manorial in their type from the first conquest. In other words, so far as this evidence goes, the Saxons seem either to have introduced the manorial system into Eng- land themselves, founding hams and tuns on the manorial type, or to have found them already existing on their arrival in Britain. There seems no room for the theory that the Saxons introduced everywhere free village communities on the system of the German ' mark,' which afterwards sank into serfdom under manorial lords. But before we can be in a position to understand what probably happened we must turn our attention to those portions of Britain which were not manorial, and where village communities did not generally exist. They form an integral part of our present England, and English economic history has to do with the M 2 ISO The English Village Community. Chap.v. economic growth of the whole people. It cannot, The tribal therefore, confine itself to facts relating to one ele- JJJJJbe went only of the nation, and to one set of influences, investi- merely because they became in the long run the paramount and overruling ones. And, moreover, the history of the manorial system itself cannot be pro- perly understood without an understanding also of the parallel, and perhaps older, tribal system, which in the course of many centuries it was destined in some districts to overrule and supplant ; in others, after cen- turies of effort, to fail in supplanting. 181 CHAPTER VI. THE TRIBAL SYSTEM {IN WALES). I. EVIDENCE OP THE DOMESDAY SURVEY. The Saxon land system has now been examined. No Chap.vi feature has been found to be more marked and general \ than its universally manorial character ; that is to say, the Saxon ' ham ' or ' tun ' was an estate or manor with a village community in villenage upon it. And the services of the villein tenants were of a uniform and clearly defined type ; they consisted of the combination of two distinct things — fixed gafol payments in money, in kind, or in labour, and the more servile week-work. It is needful now to examine the land system beyond the border of Saxon conquest. A good opportunity of doing this occurs in the Domesday Survey. The Tidenham manor has already been examined. It afforded a singularly useful example of the Saxon system. Its geographical position, at the extreme south-west corner of England, on the side of Wales, enabled us to trace its history from its probable conquest in 577, or soon after, and to conclude that it remained Saxon from that time to the date of 182 The Tribal System. of the Wye. Chap. vi. the Survey ; and distinctly manorial was found to be West side the character of its holdings and services. Now, the neighbouring land, on the west side of the Wye, was equally remarkable in its geographical position. For as long as Tidenham had been the extreme south-west corner of England, so long had the neighbouring land between the Wye and the Usk been the extreme south-east corner of un- conquered Wales. It was part of the district of Gwent, and it seems to have remained in the hands of the Welsh till Harold conquered it from the Welsh king Grunydd, by Harold. a few years on]y before the Norman Conquest. Harold seems to have annexed whatever he conquered between the Wye and the Usk — i.e. in Gwent — to his earldom of Hereford ; and after the Norman Conquest it fell into the hands of William EitzOsborn, created by William the Conqueror Earl of Hereford and Lord of Gwent.1 It was he 2 who built at Chepstow the Castle of Estrighoiel, the ruins of which still stand on the west bank of the Wye, opposite Tidenham. His son, Roger FitzOsbern, succeeded to the earldom of Hereford and the lordship of Gwent ; and, upon his rebellion G^vent. Remained Welsh till conquered 1 Liber Landavensis, p. 545. Ordertixis Vitalis, ii. 190. It may have been conquered iu 1049, after Gruffydd and Irish pirates had, ac- cording to Florence, crossed the Wye and burned 'Dymedham' (see Freeman's Norman Conquest, ii. App. P) ; but most likely shortly before a.d. 1065, under which date is the following entry in the Saxon Chronicle : — 1 A. 10G5. In this year before Lammas, Harold the Eorl ordered a building to be erected in Wales at Portskewith after he had subdued it, and there he gathered much goods and thought to have King Edward there for the purpose of hunting ; but when it was all ready, then went Cradock, Griffin's son, with the whole force which he could pro- cure, and slew almost all the people who there had been building.' 2 Domesday, i. 102 a. The Domesday Survey in Wales. 183 and imprisonment, this region of Wales became terra ('"AI' VI regis, and as such is described in the Domesday Sur- vey, mostly as a sort of annexe to Gloucestershire,1 but partly as belonging to the county of Hereford.2 Nor is Gwent the only district very near to s? a'.80 t>i« Tidenham whose Welsh history can be traced down Arc] to the time of the Domesday Survey. There was another part of ancient Wales, the district of Ergyng, or Archerifield, — which included the ' Golden Valley ' of the Dour. It lay, like Gwent — but further north — between the unmistakable boundaries of the Wye and the Usk, and it remained Welsh till conquered by Harold ; and this is confirmed by the fact that the district of iArcenefelde ' is brought within the limits of the Domesday Survey 3 as an irregular addition to Herefordshire, just as Gwent was an annexe to Gloucestershire. Here, then, we have two districts, one to the west .and the other to the north of Tidenham, both of which clearly remained Welsh till conquered by Harold a few years before the Norman Conquest, and both of them are described in the Domesday Survey. Both Further, it so happens that because they had been iScxSed but recently conquered, and had not yet been added j» the , J * J Domesday to any English county, and because also their cus- Surrey, toms differed from those of the neighbouring English manors, the services of their tenants, quite out of ordinary course, are described. So that, by a convenient chance, we are able to bring together upon the evidence of the Domesday 1 Ibid. 162 a et seq. 8 1856. See also Freeman's Norman Conquest, ii. App. SS, p. 685. 3 Domesday, i. 179 a. 184 The Tribal System. ClIAP VI. Gwent. Archcn- field. Survey the land systems of a district which for five hundred years before the Norman Conquest had been the extreme south-east edge of Wales, and of a dis- trict which for the same five hundred years had been the extreme south-west corner of Saxon England, beyond the Severn. We have seen what was the Saxon land system on one side of the Wye, which divided the two dis- tricts ; let us now see what was the Welsh land system on the other side of the river, so far as it is disclosed in the Survey. Part of theWelsh district of Gwent is thus described in the Domesday annexe to Gloucestershire : — ' Under Waswic, the propositus, are xiii. villo ; under [another pro- positus] xiiii. villo, under [another prsepositus] xiii., under [another pro- positus] xiiii. {i.e. 54 in all). These render xlvii. sextars of honey, and xl. piprs, and xli. cows, and xxviii. shillings for hawks.1 . . . ' Under the same propositi are four villse wasted hy King Cara- duech.' 2 Again, a little further on, this entry occurs : — ' The same A. has in Wales vii. villa which were in the demesne of Count William and Roger his son {i.e. Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford and Lord of Gwent). These render vi. sextars of honey, vi. pigs, and x. shillings.'3 Passing to the Domesday description of the dis- trict of Archeiifield, we find a similar record. The heading of the survey for Herefordshire 4 is as follows : ' Hie annotantur terras tenentes in Here- 1 See Ltycs Wallice, p. 812. ' De qualihet villa rusticaua debet habere ovem fetarn vel 4 denarios in cibos accipitrum.' The 54 villse at Ad. each would make xviii s. (? whether xxviii. by an extra x. in error). ' Domesday, i. 1G2 a. 3 Domesday, i. 1G2 a (last entry). * F.179a. The Domesday Survey in Wales. ISO fordscire et in Arcenefelde et in Walis.' And further Chap. vi. on 1 we learn that — 'In Arcenefelde the lung has 100 men less 4, who with their men have 73 teams, and give of custom 41 sextars of honey and 20s. instead of the sheep which they used to give, and 10s. for fumayium ; nor do they give geld or other custom, except that they march in the king's army if it is so ordered to them. If a liber homo dies there, the king has his horse, with arms. From a vittanus when he dies the king has one ox. King Grifin and Blein devastated this land in the time of King Edward, and so what it was then is not known.' Layademar pertained to Arcenefelde in the time of King Edward, &c. There is a manor [at Arcenefelde] in which 4 liberi homines with 4 teams render 4 sextars of honey and 16d. of custom. Also a villa with its men and 6 teams, and a forest, rendering a half sextar of honey and 6d. There are other instances of similar honey rents, e.g.— In Chipeete 57 men with xix. teams render xv. sextars of honey and x. shillings. In Cape v. Welshmen having v. teams render v. sextars of honey, and v. sheep with lamhs, and xd. In Mainaure one under-tenant having iv. teams renders vi. sextars of honey and x. s. In Penehecdoc one under-tenant having iv. teams render vi. sextars of honey and x. s. In Hidla xii. villani and xii. bordarii with xi. teams render xviii. sextars of honey. The distinctive points in these descriptions of the Food rents recently Welsh districts west and north of Tidenham tens of ^ are obviously (1) the prevalence of produce or food v^esr rents — honey, cows, sheep, pigs, &c. — honey being propositus. the most prominent item ; (2) the absence of the word ' manor,' used everywhere else in the survey of Gloucestershire and Herefordshire ; (3) the remark- able grouping in the district of Gwent of the ' villas ' in batches of thirteen or fourteen, each batch under a separate propositus. 1 F. 181 a. i 1S6 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. ft is clear that on the Welsh side of the Wye Welsh instead of Saxon customs prevailed, and that these were some of them.1 So much we learn from these irregular additions of newly conquered Welsh ground to the area of the Domesday Survey. The meaning of the peculiarities thus indicated will become apparent when the Welsh system has been examined upon its own independent evidence. II. THE WELSH LAND SYSTEM IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY. There is no reason why, in trying to learn the nature of the Welsh land system, the method followed throughout, of proceeding backwards from the known to the unknown, should not be followed. Open-field ft nas already been shown that such arable fields system in J Wales. as there are in Wales, like the Saxon arable fields, were open fields. They were shown to be divided by turf balks, two furrows wide,'2 into strips called erws — representing a day's work in ploughing. The Welsh laws were also found to supply the simplest and clearest solution given anywhere of the reason of the scattering of the strips in the holdings, as well as of the relations of the grades of holdings to the number of oxen contributed by the holders to the common plough team of eight oxen. In fact, the Welsh codes clearly prove that, as regards arable husbandry, the open field system was the system prevalent throughout all the three dis- tricts of Wales. 1 So f. 185 b: 'In Castelkria de Carlton . . . iii. Walenses leije Waltnsi vi rentes cum iii. car. et ii. Lord, cum dim. car. et reddunt iiii. sextar. mellis.' 2 Ancient Laics of Wales, p, .'17-i. Giraldus Cambrensis. 187 But partly from the mountainous nature of the Cha?. m country, and partly from the peculiar stage of Th.-w'.-Mi economic development through which the Welsh JJJJjJi were passing, long after the Norman Conquest they were still & pastoral people. Cattle rather than com claimed the first consideration, and ruled their habits ; and hence the Welsh land system, even in later times, was very different from that of the Saxons. In fact, the two land systems, though both using an open-field husbandry, were in their main features radically distinct. In those parts of Wales which were unconquered, and therefore uncivilised, till the conquest of Edward I., we look in vain in the early surveys for the manor or estate with the village community in villenage upon it. The Welsh system was not manorial. Its unit No manors •in • i i> orviU was not a village community on a lord s estate. As late as the twelfth century Giraldus Cambrensis l Scattered . . green described the houses of the Welsh as not built either timber in towns or even in villages, but as scattered along the edges of the woods. To his eye they seemed mere huts made of boughs of trees twisted together, easily constructed, and lasting scarcely more than a season. They consisted of one room, and the whole family, guests and all, slept on rushes laid along the wall, with their feet to the fire, the smoke of which found its way through a hole in the roof.2 The Welsh , in fact, being a pastoral people, had two sets of home- steads. In summer their herds fed on the higher ranges of the hills, and in winter in the valleys. So they themselves, following their cattle, had separate 1 Description of Wales, chap, cxvii. 2 C. x. 1SS The Tribal System. Chap. vi. lmts for summer and for winter use, as was also the custom in the Highlands of Scotland, and is still the case in the higher Alpine valleys. Giraldus Cam- brensis describes the greater part of the land as in pasture and very little as arable ; and accordingly the food of the Welsh he describes, just as Ceesar had described it eleven centuries earlier, as being chiefly the produce of their herds — milk, cheese and butter, and flesh in larger proportions than bread.1 The latter was mostly of oats. Welsh The Welsh ploughed for their oats in March and p oug ing. April, an(j for wheat in summer and winter, yoking to their ploughs seldom fewer than four oxen ; and he mentions as a peculiarity that the driver walked backward in front of the oxen, as we found was the custom in Scotland.2 Another marked peculiarity of the Welsh was their hereditary liking and universal training for war- like enterprise. They were soldiers as well as herds- men ; even husbandmen eagerly rushed to arms from the plough.3 Long settlement and the law of division of labour had not yet brought about the separation of the military from the agricultural population of Wales even so late as the twelfth century. And here we come upon traces of their old tribal economy. For the facts that they had not yet attained to settled villages and townships, that they had not yet passed from the pastoral to the agricultural stage, that they were still craving after warfare and wild enterprise — all Love of war. 1 C. viii. The district of Snow- don afforded the hest pasturage and Anglesey the best corn-grow- ing land. 2 C. viii. and xvii. In the Isle of Man lour oxen were yoked ahreast to the plough, Train's Isle of Man. ii. p. 241. 3 0. viii. Ancient Laws of Wales. ISO these are traces of tribal habits still remaining. And Chap. vi. a still clearer mark of the same thing was the stress ...n,;^.' they laid upon their genealogy. Even the common people (he says) keep their genealogies, and can not only readily recount the names of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the sixth or seventh generation, or beyond them, in this manner: Rhys, son of Gruff hjdh, son of Rhys, son of Theodor, son of Eineon, son of Owen, son of Bowel, son of Cadelh, son of Roderic Mawr, and so on.1 Thus in the twelfth century there were in Wales Survivals distinct survivals of a tribal economy. Instead of a tribaT system like the Saxons, of village communities and system" townships, the Welsh system was evidently a tribal system in the later stages of gradual disintegration, tenaciously preserving within it arrangements and customs pointing back to a period when its rules had been in full force. But the Welsh codes must be further examined before the significance of the Domesday entries can be fully appreciated. III. THE WELSH LAND SYSTEM ACCOKDING TO THE WELSH LAWS. The Welsh version of the ancient laws of Wales contains three several codes : The Venedotian of North Wales, the Dimetian and Gwentian of South Wales. They profess to date substantially from Howel dda, Laws of who codified the local customs about the middle of thetenth the tenth century. They contain, however, later centur^- 1 C. xvii. 190 The Tribal System. Chap. VI Saxon and Welsh systems contempo rary. Free tribesmen of tribal blood. additions, and the MSS. are not earlier than the end of the thirteenth century. There is a Latin version of the Dimetian code in MS. of the early part of the thirteenth century, which is especially valuable as giving the received Latin equivalent of the Welsh terms used in the laws. And there are also, apart from these codes, triads of doubtful date, but profess- ing to preserve traditional customs and laws of the Welsh nation before the time of the Saxon conquest of Britain.1 For the present purpose the actual date of a law or custom is not so important as its own intrinsic character. We seek to gain a true notion of the tribal system, and an economically early trait may well be preserved in a document of later date. There is no reason why we should be even tempted to exaggerate the antiquity of the evidence. The later the survival of the system the more valuable for our purpose. The Saxon and Welsh systems were contemporary systems, and it is best to compare them as such. It would appear that under this tribal system a district was occupied by a tribe (cenedl) under a petty king (brenhin) or chief. The tribe was composed of households of free Welshmen, all blood relations ; and the homesteads of these households were scattered about on the country side, as they were found to be in the time of Giraldus Cambrensis. They seem to have been grouped into artificial clusters mainly, as we shall see, for purposes of tribute or legal jurisdiction. 1 Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales. Record Commission, 1841. iSbu preface by Aneurin Owen. Ancient Laws of Wales. 191 But all the inhabitants ofWales were not members Chap. vi. of the tribes. Besides the households of tribesmen i >f blood relations and pure descent, there were hanging on to the tribes or their chiefs, and under the over- lordship of the latter, or sometimes of tribesmen, strangers in blood who were not free Welshmen; r - also Welshmen illegitimately born, or degraded for jj^ui crime. And these classes, being without tribal or M""! family rights, were placed in groups of households and homesteads by themselves. If there were any approach to the Saxon village community in villenage upon a lord's estate under Welsh arrangements, it was to be found in this subordinate class, who were not Welshmen, and had no rights of kindred, and were known as aillts and taeogs of the chief on whose land they were settled. Further, as there was this marked distinction between tribesmen and non-tribesmen, so also there was a marked and essential distinction between the free tribe land occupied by the families of freeWelsh tribesmen, called ltir gwelyawg,' or family land, and the 'caeth land' or bond land of the taeogs and aillts, which latter was also called ' tir-cyfrif or register land, and sometimes ' tir-kyllydus ' or geldable land (gafol-land?).1 The main significance of the Welsh system, botli as regards individual rights and land usages, turns 1 Venedotian Code. Ancient Laws of Wales, pp. 81-2, and see pp. 644-6 {Welsh Laws). Mr. Skene, in his chapter on The Trihe in Wales in his Celtic Scotland, Hi. pp. 200, 201, does r.ot seem to have grasped fully the distinction hetween ihe- free tribesmen and their family land on the one hand and the Aillts and Taeogs with their geldable or register land on the other. Every- thing, however, turns upon this. Compare Welsh Laws, xiv. s. .'!! and s. 32 (pp. 739-741), where the distinction is again clearly stated. 102 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. on this distinction between the two different classes of persons and the two different kinds of land occupied by them. They will require separate examination. Let us first take the free tribesmen (' Uchelwyrs ' or ' Breyrs ') and their ' family land.' The free jf the professed triads of Dyvnioal Moelmud mav tribesmen. l ' i • i be taken to represent, as they claim to do, the con- dition of things in earlier centuries, the essential to membership in the cenedl, or tribe, was birth within it of Welsh parents. Free-born Welshmen were ' tied ' together in a ' social state ' by the three ties of — (1) Common defence (cyvnawdd). (2) Common tillage (cyvar). (3) Common law (chyvraith).1 Every free Welshman was entitled to three things : — (1) Five free erws (or acre strips). (2) Co-tillage of the waste (cyvar gobaith). (3) Hunting.2 The home- ^e free tribesman's homestead, or tyddyn. con- fctead or ° u tyddyn. sisted of three things : — (1) His house (ty). (2) „ cattle-yard (bu-arth). (3) „ corn-yard (yd-arth).3 And the five free strips, afterwards apparently 1 Ancient Laivs of Wales, p. I 2 Id. 651 (s. 83). 638 (8. 45). I 3 P. 639 (s. 51). Ancient Laws of Wales. 19g reduced to four, of each head of a house— free, Chap. \i possibly, in the sense of their having been freed from, the common rights of others over them, as well as being free from charges or tribute — we may pro- bably regard as contained in the tyddyn, or as Lying in croft near the homesteads. The Gwentian, Dimetian, and Venedotian codes all Thc h"1'1- represent the homestead or tyddyn and land of the of a free Welshman as & family holding. So long as thc orftmUy. head of the family lived, all his descendants lived with him, apparently in the same homestead, unless new ones had already been built for them on the family land. In any case, they still formed part of the joint household of which he was the head.1 When a free tribesman, the head of a household, died, his holding was not broken up. It was held by his heirs for three generations as one joint holding ; it was known as the holding of * the heirs of So-and- so.'2 But within the holding there was equality of division between his sons ; the younger son, however, retaining the original tyddyn or homestead, and others having tyddyns found for them on the family land. All the sons had equal rights in the scattered strips and pasture belonging to the holding.3 Thus, in the first generation there was equality Equality , , , , ... within the between brothers ; they were co-tenants in equal family 1 Pp. 81-2. 2 See the surveys in the Record of Carnarvon (14th century), where the holdings are sometimes called ' WelesJ thus : — ' In eadem villa sunt tria Wele libera, viz. Wele Yarthur ap Ruwon Wele Joz. ap Ruwon and Wele Keneth ap Ru- won. Et sunt heredes predicte Wele de Yarthur ap Ruwon, Eign. ap Qriffiri and Hoell. ap Grifl'ri et alii coheredes sui;' and so on of the other Weles (p. 11). This is the common form of the survey passim. 3 Ancient Laics, fyc, of Wi. o 2 196 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. of it. beinsr the distinctive tribute of the free tribes- A free tribal tenure. men. Such was the tenure of the family land, and these were the services of the free tribesmen. There is no trace here of villenage, or of the servile week-work of the Saxon serf. The tribesmen had no manorial lord over them but their chief, and he was their natural and elected tribal head. So, when Wales was finally conquered, the tunc was paid to the Prince of Wales, and no mesne lord was inter- posed between the tribesman and the Prince. Thus the freedom of the free tribesman was guarded at every point. The aittts or taeogs. Their tyddynn and ploughs. Turning now to the other class, the aillts or taeogs — who in the Latin translations of the laws are called villani — the key to their position was their non-possession of tribal blood, and therefore of the rights of kindred. They were not free-born Welsh- men ; though, on the other hand, by no means to be confounded with caeths, or slaves. They must be sworn men of some chieftain or lord, on whose land they were placed, and at whose will and pleasure they were deemed to remain.1 Each of these taeogs had his tyddyn — his homestead, with corn and cattle yard. In his tyddyn he had cattle of his own. In South Wales several of these taeogs' homesteads were grouped together into what was called a taeog-trev. Further, the arable fields of the ' taeog-trev ' were ploughed on the open-field system by the taeogs' 1 Sometimes an 'vuthelwr' or tribesman had taengs under him. Ancient Laws, fyc, pp. 88, 33f>. and 673. See also Id. p. G4G. Laws. WvMi Ancient Laws of Wales. 197 common plough team, to which each contributed Chap. vi. oxen. But the distinctive feature of the taeog-trev was Bqwiitj 7 7 7' '" ''"' that an absolute equality ruled, not between brothers taeoj or cousins of one household, as in the case of the family land of the free tribesmen, but throughout the whole trev. Family relationships were ignored. All adults in the trev — fathers and sons, and strangers in blood — took equal shares, with the single exception of youngest sons, who lived with their fathers, and had no tyddyn of their own till the parent's death. This principle of equality ruled everything.1 The common ploughing must not begin till every taeog in the trev had his place appointed in the co-tillage.2 Nor could there be any escheat of land in the taeog-trev to the lord on failure of heirs ; for there was nothing heredi- tary about the holdings. Succession always fell (except in the case of the youngest son, who took his father's tyddyn) to the whole trev.3 When there was a death there was a re-division of the whole land, care, how- ever, being taken to disturb the occupation of the actual tyddyns only when absolutely needful.4 The principle upon which the taeog's rights rested Per capita _Tr , , no account was simply this : where there was no true Welsh 0f blood blood no family rights were recognised. In the ab- jJip.lon sence of these, equality ruled between individuals ; they shared ' per capita,' and not ' per stirpes.' The land of a taeog-trev was, as already said, The,r o j ' register called ' register land ' 5 — tir cyfrif. land. 1 Id. pp. 82 and 536. Welsh Laws, s. xxxii. - Id. p. 376. 3 Id. p. 82. 4 Id. p. 82. 5 It was sometimes called ' tir kyllidin,' or geldable land, as before stated. 198 The Tribal System. Chap. VI. Incidents to their tenures. Food- rents. There were other incidents marking off the taeog from the free "Welshman. He might not bear arms ; x he might not, without his lord's consent, become a scholar, a smith, or a bard, nor sell his swine, honey, or horse.2 Even if he were to marry a free Welsh woman, his descendants till the fourth, and in some cases the ninth degree, remained taeogs. But the fourth or ninth descendant of the free Welsh woman, as the case might be, might at last claim his five free strips, and become the head of a new kindred.3 Even the taeog was, however, under these laws, hardly a serf. With the exception of his duty to assist the lord in the erection of buildings, and to submit to kylch, i.e. to the lord's followers, being quartered upon him when making a ' progress,' and to dovraith, or maintenance of the chief's dogs and ser- vants, there seems to have been no exaction of menial personal services.4 The taeogs' dues, like those of free Welshmen, consisted of fixed summer and winter contributions of food for the chiefs table. In Gwent they had to provide in winter a sow, a salted flitch, threescore loaves of wheat bread, a tub of ale, twenty sheaves of oats, and pence for the servants. In summer, a tub of butter and twelve cheeses and bread.5 These tributes of food were called ' dawnbwyds,' gifts of food , or ' board-gifts,' and from these the taeog or register land is in one place in the Welsh laws called tir bwrdd, or ' board-land ' (terra mensalia. 1 Aivcient Laws, eye, p. 673. 2 Pp. 36-7 and 212-13. 3 Id. pp. 88 and GIG. 4 Pp. 93 and 376. * P. 375-6. Giuentian Code, 11, x.vxv. Ancient La ws of Wa li 'S . 100 or ' mensal land '*), a term which we shall find again '" when we come to examine the Irish tribal system. Lastly, it must not be forgotten that beneath the taeogs, as beneath the Saxon geneat and gebur, were the ' caeths,' or bondmen, the property of their owners,2 without tyddyn and without land, unless such were assigned to them by their lord. These caeths were, therefore, not settled in separate trevs, but scattered about as household slaves in the tyddyns of their masters. IV. LAND DIVISIONS UNDER THE WELSH CODES. There were, then, these two kinds of holdings — ■ those of the free tribesmen, of ' family land,' and those of the taeogs, of ' register land.' There remains to be considered the system on which the holdings were clustered together. The principle of this it is not very easy at first to ti understand, and the difficulty is increased by a con- grouped fusion of terms between the codes. But there is one mlXof fact, by keeping hold of which the system becomes ^tf°°rd* intelligible, viz., that the grouping seems to have been tmw based upon the collective amount of the food-rent. The homesteads, or tyddyns, each containing its four free erws, were scattered over the country side. But they were artificially grouped together for the purpose of the payment of the food-rent, or tunc pound in lieu of it. And by following the group which pays the pound. 1 Ancient Laws, fyc, p. 697. 3 P. 294 (Dimetian Code). ' The c.aeth — there ia no galanas (death- fine) for hiru, only payment of his " wertb " to his master Wee the " icerth " of a beast.11 200 The Tribal System. Chap- tl ' tunc pound ' as the unit of comparison, the at first conflicting evidence falls into its proper place. In the Venedotian Code the maenol is this unit. In the Dimetian and Gwentian Codes this unit is the trev. According to the Venedotian Code of North Wales,1 In North Wales the maenol the unit for food-rent. 4 erws 4 tyddyns 4 randirs 4 gavaels 4 treys 12 maenols and 2 supernumerary trevs 2 cyniwds = 1 tyddyn. = 1 randir = 1 gavael. = 1 trev. = 1 maenol. = 1 cymwd (or comote). = 1 cantrev (100 trevs). Thl^wd The cymwd was thus a half-hundred, and each hundred of cymwd had its court, and so was the unit of legal maenols. jurisdiction. At its head was a maer and a canghellor, the two officers of the chief who had jurisdiction over it. The twelve maenols in the cymwd were thus dis- posed : — 1 free maenol for the support of the office of maer. 1 free maenol for the support of the office of canghellor. 6 occupied by ' uchelwrs,' or tribesmen. Making 8 free maenols of ' family land/ from each of which a gwestva or tunc pound was paid. The other 4 maenols were ' register land ' occupied by aillts or taeogs, paying 'dawn bwyds.' 12 in the ' cyrnwd.' 2 Now, it must be admitted that all this singular system, arranged according to strict arithmetical rules, looks very much like a merely theoretical arrange- ment, plausible on paper but impossible in practice. It will be found, however, that there is more 1 Ancient Laws, 8fc.t pp. 00-1. Id. p. 01, s. 14. Ancient Laws of Wales. 201 probability, as well as reason and meaning in it, than °HAP< VI at first sight appears. In the first place, as regards the twelve maenols making up the cymwd, there is no difficulty ; four of them were taeog maenols and eight were free maenols. But there is an obvious difficulty in the description of the contents of each maenol. Taken literally, the description in the Venedotian Code seems to imply that every maenol was composed of four trevs, each of which contained four gavaels composed of four randirs, each of which contained four tyddyns com- posed of four erws. But in this case the maenol would Threescore • -, pence of contain nothing but tyddyns — nothing but home- the tunc steads! — there would be no arable and no pasture, eachtrev. This cannot be the true reading. A clue to the real meaning is found in a clause which, after repeating that from each of the eig\ht free maenols in the cymwd the chief has a gwestva yearly, c that is a pound yearly from each of them,' goes on to say, ' Threescore pence is charged on each trev of the four that are in a maenol, and so subdivided into quarters in succession until each erw of the tyddyn be assessed.' l Now, from this statement it may be assumed that there must be some correspondence between the number of pence in the tunc pound and the number of erws in the maenol, otherwise why speak of each erw being assessed ? But, according to the foregoing figures, there would be 1,024 erws in the maenol.2 1 Id. p 91, s. 15. In Leges Wallice, p. 825, 'score pence' or 1 score of silver ' is translated ' uncia argenti;' .\ 3 uncie agri should equal a ' trev.' See Liber Landa- vensis, pp. 70 and 317. 2 4 erw = tyddyn. 16 „ = randir. 04 „ = gavael. 250 „ = trev. 1024 „ = maenol. 202 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. Each trev, which thus contains 256 erws, is to pay Four threescore pence. How can 256 erws be divided hoiTngsTn into quarters till each erw is assessed ? Dividing the each trev. trey ^ fQur we get tjie gavael of sixty-four erws, and threescore pence divided by four is sixty farthings. It is evident that sixty farthings cannot be divided between sixty-four erws. But if we suppose each trev to contain four homesteads or tyddyns, then the gavael 1 of sixty-four erws would be the single holding belonging to a tyddyn or homestead, and the four erws in the actual tyddyn (which are to be free erws) being deducted, then the sixty farthings exactly correspond with the remaining sixty erws forming the holding of land appendant to the tyddyn, and each erw would pay one farthing. We may take it then as possible that each Venedotian maenol contained four trevs, paying sixty pence each, and that each trev was a cluster of four holdings of sixty erws each, in respect of which the holders paid sixty farthings each to the gwestva, holding their actual tyddyns free. a group of In other words, each of the eight free maenols honS" contained sixteen homesteads, which sixteen home- steads steads were first classified in groups of four called paid the ° . tunc trevs. Or, to put the case the other way, the eight free maenols, were divided into quarters or trevs, and these trevs again each contained four homesteads. It is evidently a tribal arrangement, clustering the homesteads numerically for purposes of the pay- ment of gwestva, and probably the discharge of other 1 The word Oabailsi ill in Scotch Gaelic retains its meaning of a farm. The word is pronounced ' ijao'-uU Ancient Laws of Wales. 203 public duties, and not a natural territorial arrangement °HAP- VI- on the basis of the village or township. Turning now to theDimetian and Gwcntian Codes, In s"u"1 1 ' • IP! WalM ,1'" according to which the free trev instead of the maenol in. is the gwestva-paying unit -} there is first the group gwestva. of twelve trevs (instead of twelve maenols) under a single maer, and under the name of maenol instead of cymwd ; but apparently all the trevs in the group of twelve 2 are free trevs. There are other groups of seven taeog-trevs making a taeog-maenol, and the maenol (instead of the cymwd) has its court, and becomes the unit of legal jurisdiction.3 Confining attention to the free maenol, the first thing to notice is that each of the twelve free trevs of which it was composed paid its gwestva, or tunc pound in lieu of it. The trev, therefore, was the gwestva-paying unit. And as to the interior of the trev we read, — ' There are to be four randirs in the trev, from which the king's gwestva shall be paid.' ' 312 erws are to be in the randir between clear and brake, wood and field, and wet and dry, except a supernumerary trev [the upland has in addition].'4 In this case the * tunc pound ' of 240c?. was paid by each trev of 4 randirs, each randir containing 312 erws, and the trev 1,248 erws in all. The trev in South Wales is, therefore, slightly larger than the 1 Ancient Laws, pp. 261. ' Four randirs are to be in the trev from which the king's gwestva is to be paid' (s. 5). 2 In upland districts there were 13 trevs in the maenol, p. 375. 3 There were seven taeog-trevs intaeog-maenols, and each contained three randirs, in two of which t here were three taeog-tyddyns to each, the third being pasture for the other two. There were therefore six taeog holdings in each taeog- trev. Ancient Laws, 8[C, pp. 37 o and 829. * Pp. 374-5. 204 The Tribal System. Chap. VI. The trev a cluster of twelve holdings, each paying an ounce or score of silver, so between them the tunc pound. Venedotian maenol. Here we are bound by no law that the pence in the gwestva should exactly corre- spond with the number of erws. But in the other versions the 12 odd erws in the randir are stated to be for ' domicilia,' * or buildings, and 12 erws would allow of 3 tyddyns of the requisite 4 erws each. This fixes for us the number of homesteads or tyddyns in the trev. There were 3 tyddyns to each randir, and 4 randirs to the trev, and so there were 12 tyddyns in each trev, and to each tyddyn there were appendant 100 erws in the arable, pasture, and waste. The trev which paid its tunc pound of 240c?. was thus made up of 12 holdings, each paying a score pence. And as in the Latin version of the Dimetian Laws (p. 825) a score pence is translated uncia argenti, the connexion is at once made clear between the system of grouping the holdings so as to pay the tunc pound, and the monetary system which prevailed in Wales, viz., that according to which 20cZ. made an ounce, and 12 ounces one pound. The 12 holdings each paying a score of pence, or ounce of silver, made up between them the tunc pound of the trev. This curious geometrical arrangement or classifi- cation of tyddyns and trevs, with an equal area of land to each, is at first sight entirely inconsistent with the division of the family land among the heirs of the holder, inasmuch as the greatgrandchildren when they divided the original family holding must, one would suppose, have held smaller shares than their great 1 P. 829. ' In randir continen- ts ccc. et xii. acre : ut in ccc. acris, araturam, et pascua et focalia pos- sessor habeat; hide xii. domicilia.' See also p. 7'JO. ' Id est xii. domi- cilia.' The Dimetian Code has it ' space for buildings on the 12 erws ' (p. 263). Ancient Laics of Wales, 20r> grand father. And there is only one answer to this. It Chap- vr would have been so if the tribe, and the families com- posing it, were permanently fixed and settled on the same land, and pursuing a regular agriculture, with an increasing population within certain boundaries. But the Welsh were still a pastoral people, and, as we shall see when we come to examine the Irish tribal The tribal system, while the homesteads and land divisions were shitted fixed, the occupants were shifted about by the chiefs ESS from time to time, each sept, or clan, or family receiv- ing at each rearrangement a certain number of tyddyns or homesteads, according to certain tribal rules of blood relationship of a very intricate character. This permanence of the geographical divisions and homesteads, and shifting of the tribal households whenever occasion required it, was only possible with a pastoral and scanty population. Long before the fourteenth century the households were settled in their homesteads, geometrical regularity had ceased, and the land was divided and subdivided into irre- gular fractions. This is the state of things disclosed in the Record of Carnarvon. But in the tenth cen- tury, according to the Welsh laws, the old tribal rules were apparently still in force. Without pretending to have mastered all the The clus- mi j.i toring of details of these obscure tribal arrangements, the households point to be noted is that the scattering of the tyddyns ^ct^a all over the country side, and the clustering of them [JJ*jjL by fours and sixteens, or twelves, into the group system. which was the unit paying the gwestva or tunc pound, and again into clusters of twelve or thirteen 1 under a 1 ' There are to be thirteen trevs I of these is the supernumerai y trev.' in every maenol, and the thirteenth I Gwentian Code, p. 3~o. 206 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. maer, as the unit of civil jurisdiction, were obviously- distinctive features arising from the tribal holding of land, and that the system was adopted apparently to facilitate the division of the land among the families in the tribe somewhat in the same way as in the open field system the division of the arable land by turf balks into actual erws facilitated the division of the ploughed land among the contributors to the plough team. Latin equivalent of tribal ■words in the Domesday Survey. Bearing this in mind we may now turn back to the Domesday Survey, and compare its description of the land system of Gwent and Archenfield with the results obtained from the Welsh laws. In order, however, to make this comparison the Welsh terms must be translated into Latin, otherwise it will be difficult to recognise the trev, and maer, and maenol, and gwestvain the Domesday description. The before-mentioned Latin version of the Dimetian Code, the MS. of which dates from the early thirteenth century, will do this for us.1 It translates trev, the unit of the tunc pound, by villa. It takes the Welsh word ' maenol ' as equivalent to manor, and indeed it did resemble the Saxon and Norman manor in this, that it was the unit of the jurisdiction of each single steward or villicus of the chief. This officer was called in Welsh the maer, which was translated into the Latin propositus. He did to some extent resemble the English propo- situs, but he differed in this — that instead of being set over the ' trev ' or ' villata ' of a single manor, 1 Leyes Walliee, Ancient Laws, SfC, p. 771 et seq. The Domesday Survey in Wales. 207 the Welsh maer was, as we have seen, set over a r"Ar VI number of ' villas ' or trevs — thirteen free trevs or seven taeog-trevs, in Gwent — each free trev of which rendered its 'tunc pound' or 'gwestva,' and each taeog or villein-trev its ' dawn-bwyd ' of food. Now, this is precisely what is described in the Domesday Survey of Gwent. There are four groups of thirteen or fourteen The, 1 villas ' or trevs, each group under a ' propositus ' or maer ; and these four groups, which were in fact mapoafau Gwentian ' maenols,' rendered as gwesta a food-rent JSient amounting to 47 sextars of honey, 40 pigs, 41 cows, and 28 shillings for hawks. In the district of Archenfield the clusters of trevs do not appear, but the food-rents were similar — honey being a marked item throughout. In the Welsh gwestva, also, honey was an important Honey element. It is mentioned as such in the Welsh codes, and it is conspicuous also in the Domesday Survey both of Gwent and Archenfield. Its importance is shown by the fact that in the import- Gwentian Code a separate section was devoted to honey. ' The Law of Bees.' It begins as follows : — ' The origin of bees is from Paradise, and on account of the sin of man they came from thence, and they were blessed by God, and, therefore, the mass cannot be without the wax.' * The price of a swarm of bees in August was equal to the price of an ox ready for the yoke, i.e. ten or fifteen times its present value, in proportion to the ox. Honey had, in fact, two uses, besides its being the 1 Ancient Laivs, fyc, p. 360. 208 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. substitute for the modern sus;ar — one for the making of mead, which was three times the price of beer ; the other for the wax for candles used in the chief's house- hold, and on the altar of the mass.1 The lord of a taeog had the right of buying up all his honey ;2 and in North Wales, according to the Venedotian Code, all the honey of the king's aillts or taeogs was reserved for the court.3 The mead brewer was also an important royal officer in all the three divisions of Wales. It is not surprising, then, that the tribute of honey, which formed so important a part of the Welsh gwestva, should be retained as an item in the tribute of the trevs of Gwent after their conquest by Harold. V. EARLIER EVIDENCE OF THE PAYMENT OF WELSH GWESTVA, OR FOOD-RENT. From the combined evidence of the Domesday Survey and the 'Ancient Laws of Wales,' the fact has now been learned that in the eleventh century, as it had done previously probably for 400 years, the river Wye separated by a sharp line the Saxon land, on which the manorial land system prevailed, from the Welsh land, on which the Welsh tribal land system prevailed. On the one side of the river, at the date of the Sur- vey, clusters of scattered homesteads of free Welsh- men contributed food-rents in the form of gwestva to the conqueror of their chief, and taeogs their dawn- bwyds. On the other side the villata of geneats and geburs, besides paying gafol, performed servile week-work upon the demesne lands of the lord of the 1 Ancient Laws, 8,-c, p. 326. 2 Id. p. 213. 3 Id. p. 92 (s. 5). Early Welsh Evidence. 209 village or manor. It may be well, however, to seek Chap. vj. for some earlier evidence of the payment of gwestva on the Welsh side of the river. Documentary evidence of the manorial system on the Saxon side was forthcoming as early as the seventh century, in the laws of King Ine. How far back can documentary evidence be traced of the Welsh system ? In the possession of the church of Llandaff there The Book was long preserved an ancient MS. of the Gospels in chtrtersof Latin, called the Book of St. Chad.1 This MS. tf»«ghtii 7 century appears to date back to the eighth century. And it mention rr ,. , , & . . food-rent. was ior long the custom to enter on its margin a record of solemn compacts sworn upon it, as in the similar case of the Book of Deer. It thus happens to contain (inter alia) two short records of grants to the church of St. Teilo (or Llandaff). One of these gifts is as follows : 2 — ' This writing showeth that Ris and the family of ' Grethi gave to God and St. Teilo, Treb guidauc. . . ' and this is its census : 40 loaves and a wether sheep ' in summer ; and in winter, 40 loaves, a hog, and 40 * dishes of butter. . . .' Another is in these words : — ' This writing showeth that Eis and Hirv .... ' gave Bracma as far as Hirmain Guidauc^ from the ' desert of Gelli Irlath as far as Camdubr, its " hichet " 1 [food-rent ?], 3 score loaves and a wether sheep, 1 Liher Landavensis, p. 271, App., and p, 615. 2 For the translation see p. 616. For the original, p. 272, as follows : ' Ostendit ista scriptio quod de- derunt Ris et luith Grethi Treb guidauc i malitiduck Cimarguich, et hie est census ejus, douceint torth hamaharuin in irhain, hadu- ceint torth in irgaem, ha liuch, ba douceint rnannudenn deo et sancto elindo. . . . 210 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. « an(j a vessel of butter. Aud then follow the wit- ' nesses,' ] Evidently Khys ap Ithael, the donor in these two cases, was trevs.e°S" king of the district of Glewyssig in the middle of the ninth century, about the time of Alfred the Great. Now, a king or chief would hardly be likely to transfer to the church of Llandaff a free trev and the gwestva paid therefrom. This would have involved the sever- ance of free members of the tribe from the tribe, to put them under an ecclesiastical lordship. We should ex- pect then to find that the Trev ' Guidauc ' was a taeog- trev on the chiefs own land, and according to the description given in the grants, the census corresponds not with the gwestva of a free trev under the Welsh laws, but with the ' dawn-bwyd ' of the taeog-trev. The food tribute in these grants was divided into summer and winter payments, and so, as we have seen, were the dawn-bwyds of the taeogs in the Welsh laws ; the scores of loaves, the sow, the wether sheep, and the tubs of butter, correspond also with the food-gifts from the taeog-trevs, as described in the laws, though with varying quantities.2 These grants in the margin of the Book of St. Chad may, therefore be taken as evidence that the system of food -rents was prevalent in Wales in the middle of the ninth century. Survival There is still earlier evidence of the prevalence customs in of the system of food-rents where we should little expect to find it, viz., in the laws of King Ine. Ine being King of Wessex, and Wessex shading off as it 1 For the translation see p. 617; for Uie original, p. 272. 3 bee Leijea Wullice, ii. 14, ' De Daunbwyt ' [Dono Cibi]. An- cient Luivs, i5)-c, of Widen, p. 700. Early Welsh Evidence. 211 were into the old British districts both south and easl '"*'•• VI- of the Severn, it was but natural that some old Welsh or British customs should have survived in certain places ; as Walisc men here and there survived amongst the conquering English. These Welshmen were allowed under Lie's laws to hold half-hides and hides of land. We have only to examine the Domesday- Survey for Gloucestershire and Herefordshire to find traces even at that date of survivals of Welsh and Saxon customs in exceptional cases, even outside those districts which had only just been conquered. In some places where Saxon customs had long prevailed a little community of Welshmen remained under Welsh customs. In other places the customs were partly Welsh and partly English.1 1 Fol. 162 b. ' In Cirencester hundred King Edward had five hides of land. In demesne v. ploughs and xxxi. villani -with x. ploughs, xiii. servi and x. bordaiii, &c. The Queen has the wool of the sheep. T. R. E. : this manor ren- dered iii.i modii of corn, and of barley iii. modii, and of honey vi.^ sextars, and ix.l. and v.s., and 3,000 loaves for dogs.' This is very much like a sur- vival of the Welsh food-rents at one of the cities conquered by the Saxons in 577. In some other places out of Archenfield there was a mixture of Welsh and English customs. The manor ofWestwode (f. 181) was held by St. Peter of Glouces- ter. It contained vi. hides, ' one of which had Welsh custom, the others English.' A Welshman in this manor had half a carucate, and rendered i. sextar of honey. And at Clive (f. 179 b), 8 Welsh- men had 8 teams, and rendered x.i sextars of honey and vi.s. v.d., and in the forest of the king was land of this manor, which T. R. E. had rendered vi. sextars of honey, and vi. sheep with lambs. These instances are sufficient to show that in Herefordshire, as in Gloucestershire, in the newly con- quered districts, the old Welsh dues of honey, sheep, &c, remained un- disturbed ; while in the districts which had long been under Saxon rule, in some few cases there was a mixture of services, and in others the Saxon services of ploughing on the lord's demesne had become general. It may be assumed that when the services were thus described 212 The Tribal System. Chap. vi. jn precisely tlie same way survivals such as these Food-rents must have existed in King Ine's time. There must intheiaws have been then, as 400 years afterwards, at the date thp^" venth °f tne Survey, places in Wessex where Welshmen pre- century. dominated and Welsh customs survived. There must have been, in other words, manors which paid Welsh gwestva instead of Saxon services. There is a remark- able passage in King Ine's laws which can only be thus explained. On the same page, and in the next paragraph but two to the law about the yard-land set to ' gafol ' and to ' weorc,' 1 there is a clause appa- rently out of place, which begins abruptly with this heading : ' ^Et x. hidum ro pcvprpe.' 2 In the Latin version this is rendered ' De x. hides ad corredium.' 3 Now, there is a passage in a charter of Louis VII. of France, anno 1157, given by Du Cange under the word ' Corredium,' in which certain ' villas ' are freed from the exaction of * quEedam convivia, quaa vulgo Coreede vel Giste vocantur.' This definition of corredium and of ' giste,' as a contribution of food exacted from tenants, corresponds exactly to the Welsh ' gwestva.' And the Saxon word fostre also means food. So that this heading to the passage in question may be translated — ' from x. hides paying gwestva.' And so interpreted the following list be- contrary to the usual routine of the Domesday surveyors, it was because there was something unusual about them ; and that in the majority of instances where Saxon customs pre- vailed, no description was deemed needful. Compare the Domesday survey of Dorsetshire — a portion of the ' West Wales ' — where the manors in the royal demesne are grouped SO that each group renders a 'firma unius noctis,' or a ' firma dimidite noctis.' 1 Laws of Ine, No. G7. Thorpe, p. G3. 2 Id. No. 70. Thorpe, p. 63. 3 Id. p. 504. Early Welsh Evidence. 213 comes perfectly intelligible, for it describes what the Cap. vi. gwestva consisted of. From 10 hides — x. dolia of honey, ccc. loave3. xii. amphora of Welsh ale. xxx. of clear [do.] ii. oxen or x. wethers. x. geese. xx. hens. x. cheeses. A full amphora of butter. v. salmons of xx. pounds weight. c. eels. Now, if the system of gwestva payment or food-rent described in this passage of the laws of King Ine be evidence of the survival of the Welsh custom after the Saxon conquest, it is at the same time equally clear documentary evidence of the seventh century that the system of gwestva or food-rents was prevalent outside Wales in the west of Britain before the Saxon conquest.1 1 For much curious information I tenures, see Taylor's History of respecting the Welsh system of I Gavel-kind. London. 1003. CHAPTEE VH. THE TRIBAL SYSTEM {continued), I. THE TRIBAL SYSTEM IN IRELAND AND SCOTLAND. Chap. VII. Irish land divisions closely resemble the Welsh. The Welsh evidence brings us back to a period parallel with the Saxon era marking the date of King Ine's laws. The Welsh land system was then clearly- distinguished from the Saxon by the absence of the manor with its village community in serfdom, and by the presence instead of it of the scattered homesteads (tyddyns) of the tribesmen and taeogs, grouped to- gether for the purpose of the payment to the chief of the food-rents, or their money equivalents. Further light may possibly be obtained from obser- vation of the tribal system in a still earlier economic stage, though at a much later date, in Ireland. Now, first — without going out of our depth as we might easily do in the Irish evidence — it may readily be shown, sufficiently for the present purpose, that the system of land divisions, or rather of the group- ing of homesteads into artificial clusters with arith- metical precision, was prevalent in Ireland outside the Pale as late as the times of Queen Elizabeth and The Irish Evidence. 215 James L, when an effort was made to substitute Chap.vu. English for Irish customs and laws. There are extant several surveys of parts of Ire- land of that date in which are to be recognised arrangements of homesteads almost precisely similar to those of the Welsh Codes. And further, the names of the tenants being given, we can see that they were blood relations like the Welsh tribesmen, with a carefully preserved genealogy guarding the fact of their relationship and consequent position in the tribe. The best way to realise this fact may be to turn to actual examples. According to an inquisition l made of the county of Fermanagh in 1 James I. (1603), the county was found to be divided into seven equal baronies, the description of one of which may be taken as a sample. 'The temporal land -within this barony is all equally divided into Clusters cf 7\ huUybetagh.es [literally victuallers' towns,2 or units for purposes of the iaifl< "? food-rents like the Welsh trevs], each containing 4 quarters, each of & ^ne those quarters containing 4 tathes [corresponding with the "Welsh tyddyns'], and each of those tathes aforesaid to be 30 acres country measure.' Of ' spiritual lands ' there are two parish churches, one having 4 quar- ters, the other 1 quarter. Also there are 'other small freedoms containing small parcels of land, eome belonging to the spiritualty, and others being part of the memal lands allotted to Macgwire (the chief).' This exactly corresponds with the arrangement for the purposes of the gwestva of the Welsh tyddyns in groups of 4 and 16, as in the Venedotian Code. 1 Inquisitiones Cancellarice Hi- hernia, ii. xxx. iii. 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vii. p. xiv., p. 474. Paper by the Rev. W. Reeves, D.U. 21G The Tribal System. Chap. VII. Exnmple in Co. Monaghan. There is also a Survey of County Monaghan in 33 Elizabeth l (1591), in which the names of the holders of the tates in each bailebiatagh, or group of 16, are given. Thus, again, to take a example, — single Balleclonangre, a ballibeatacb containing xvi. tates. To Breine McCabe Fitz Alexander „ Edrnond McCabe Fitz Alexander „ Cormocke McCabe . „ Breine Kiagb McCabe „ Edmond boy, McCabe „ Rosse McCabe McMelagken „ Gilpatric McCowla McCabe „ Toole McAlexander McCabe „ James McTirlogh McCabe „ Arte McMelaghlin Dale McMabon 5 tates. 1 tate. 2 tates. 9 1 tate. 1 „ 1 ,, 1 ,, 1 n _1_ „ 16 A fresh survey of the same district was made by Sir John Davies in 1607 ;2 the record for this same bailebiatagh is as follows : — II. Lissenarte. 2. Cremoyle. 3. Sharagbanadan. 4. Nealoste. 5. Tirebannely. Patrick M'Edniond M'Cabe Fitz- Alexander, in) „ n , . , ' [ 6. Curleigne. demesne, 1 tate Cormock M'Cabe, in demesne, 2 tates . Rosse M'Arte Moyle, in demesne, 2 tates . James M'Edniond boy M'Cabe, in demesne, 1 7. Aghenelogh. 8. Derraghlin. Ben age. Cowlerasack. f 9' 110. tate 11. Tolladieisce. Colloe M'Art Oge M'Mabowne, in demesne, l),n -n. ' fl2. Dromegeryne. tate v . . , , . . } 1 Inqumtiones Cancellarice Jii- bernite, ii. p. xxi. 2 Calendar of State Papers, Ire- land, 1006-8, p. 170. The Irish Evidence. 217 Patrick M'Art Oge M'Mahowne, in regard there \ Cnw. V] I is good hope of his honest deserts, and that i no ~ ., ,. . , . ,. i ■ ... .' , M3. Corevanane. the farst patentee disclaimeth, in demesne, 1 1 tate j Toole M'Toole M' Alexander M'Cabe, in demesne, ) , . „, ltate fl4. Turrgher. James M'Tirleogh M'Cabe, in demesne, 1 tate . 15. Brian M'Art Oge M'Mahowne, in demesne, 1)7„ tate J Now, by comparison' it will be seen that at botli dates there were sixteen tates in the bailebiatagh, and relations. that the holders were evidently blood relations. In some cases the name of a son takes the place of his father (the genealogy being kept up), and in others new tenants appear. There is also reason to suppose that these tates Thotates were family homesteads (like the tyddyns of the holdings. Welsh ' family land '), with smaller internal divisions, and embracing a considerable number of lesser house- holds. The fact that one person only is named as holding the tate, or the two tates, as the case may be, suggests that he is so named as the common an- cestor or head of the chief household representing all the belongings to the tate. Within the tate the sub- division of land seems to have been carried to an indefinite extent. The following extract from Sir John Davies' report will probably give the best account of the actual and, to his eye, somewhat con- fused condition of things within the tates, as he found them. It relates to the county of Fermanagh, and is in the form of a letter to the Earl of Salisbury, dated 1607 r1— 1 Appended to Sir John Davies' Discovery, of Ireland, in some of the early editions. 218 The Tribal System. Chap. VII. For the several possessions of all these lands we took this course to find ; them out, and set thein down for his lordship's information. We called •J1 .°,n unto us the inhabit ants of every barony severally. . . We had present cer- description ^am of the clerks or scholars of the country, who know all the septs and of the families, and all their branches, and the dignity1 of one sept above another, Bepts. an(j what families or persons tvere chief of every sept, and who were next, and who were of a third rank, and so forth, till they descended to the most inferior man in all the baronies ; moreover, they took upon them to tell what quantity of land every man ought to have by the custom of their country, which is of the nature of gavelkind. Whereby, as their septs or families did multiply, their possessions have been from time to time divided and subdivided and broken into so many small parcels as almost every acre of land hath a several owner, which termeth himself a lord, and his portion of land his country : notwithstanding, as McGuyre himself had a chief ry over all the country, and some demesnes that did ever pass to him only who carried that title ; so was there a chief of every sept who had certain services, duties, or demesnes, that ever passed to the tannist of that sept, and never was subject to division. When this was understood, we first inquired whether one or more septs did possess that barony which we had in hand. That being set down, we took the names of the chief parties of the sept or septs that did pos- sess the baronies, and also the names of such as were second in them, and so of others that were inferior unto them again in rank and in possessions. Then, whereas every barony containeth seven ballibetaghs and a half, we caused the name of every ballibetagh to be written down ; and there- upon we made inquiry what portion of land or services every man held in every ballibetagh, beginning with such first as had land and services ; and after naming such as had the greatest quantity of land, and so de- scending unto such as possess only two taths ; then we stayed, for lower we could not go,2 because we knew the purpose of the State was only to establish such freeholders as are fit to serve on juries; at least, we had found by experience in the county of Monaghan that such as had less than two taths allotted to them had not 40s. freehold per annum ultra repri- salem ; and therefore were not of competent ability for that service ; and yet the number of freeholders named in the county was above 200. Sir John Davies, in the same report, also gives a graphic description of the difficulty he had in ob- 1 Compare the words of Tacitus, ' Agri pro numero cultorum ab uni- versis vicis occupantur, quos rucx inter se secundum dignationem par- 2 In Monaghan Sir J. Davies had found tates with GO acres each. Here there were only 80 acres in a tate, so he kept to his old rule, tiuntur. Germania, xxvi. j and took 2 tates as his lowest unit The Irish Evidence. 219 taming from the aged Brehon of the district the roll Ohap.vh. on which were inscribed the particulars of the various holdings, including those on the demesne or mensal land of the chief.1 It is difficult to form a clear conception of what the tribes, septs, and families were, and what were their relations to one another. But for the present purp.ose it is sufficient to understand that a sept con- sisted of a number of actual or reputed blood relations, bearing the same family names, and bound together by other and probably more artificial ties, such as com- mon liability for the payment of eric, or blood fines. A curious example of what is virtually an actual sept is found in the State Papers of James I. In 1606 a sept of the ' Grames,' under their Example chief 'Walter, the gude man of Netherby,' being beriand troublesome on the Scottish border, were trans- 8ept* planted from Cumberland to Eoscommon ; and in the schedule to the articles arranging for this transfer, it appears that the sept consisted of 124 persons, nearly all bearing the surname of Grame. They were divided into families, seventeen of which were set down as possessed of 201. and upwards, four of 10/. and upwards, six of the poorer sort, six of no abilities, while as dependants there were four servants of the name of Grame, and about a dozen of irregular hangers on to the sept.2 The sept was a human swarm. The chief was the Queen Bee round whom they clustered. The territory occupied by a whole sept was divided 1 This may be found also in Ancient Laws of Ireland, iii. Pre- face, xxxv. G. 2 Calendar of State Paper*, Irc- land, 1603-G, p. 554; and 1606 8, p. 492. 220 The Tribal System. Chap. vii. among the inferior septs which had swarmed off it. And a sort of feudal relation prevailed between the parent and the inferior septs. There can probably, on the whole, be no more correct view of the Irish tribal system in its essence and spirit than the simple generalisation made by Sir John Davies himself, from the various and, in some sense, inconsistent and entangled facts which bewildered him in detail.1 First, as regards the chiefs, whether of tribes or septs, and their demesne lands, he writes : 2 — ' 1. By the Irish custom of tanistry the chieftains of every country and the chief of every sept had no longer estate than for life in their chieferies, the inheritance whereof did rest in no man. And these chieferies, though they had some portions of land allotted unto them, did consist chiefly in cuttings and coscheries and other Irish exactions, whereby they did spoil and impoverish the people at their pleasure. And when their chieftains were dead their sons or next heirs did not succeed them, hut their tanists, who were elective, and purchased their elections by show of hands.' Next, as to tribesmen and their inferior tenan- Tho chiefs and the tanists. Division of holdings among tribesmen. cies ' 2. And by the Irish custom of gavelkind the inferior tenancies were partible amongst all the males of the sept ; and after partition made, if any one of the sept had died his portion was not divided among his sons, but the chief of the sept made a new partition of all the lands belonging to that sept, and gave every one his part according to his antiquity.' The These two Irish customs (Sir John Davies con- andcha""- tinues) made all their possessions uncertain, being mg'and shuffled and changed and removed so often from one frequent ° redibtribu- to another, by new elections and partitions, ' which tioiis. uncertainty of estates hath been the true cause of desolation and barbarism in this land.' 1 The evidence by which he was gradually informed may be traced in detail in the above-men- tioned Calendars. 2 Sir John Davies' Discovery of Ireland, 1012, pp. 167 et seq. The Irish Evidence. 22] These were obviously the main features oi an Ci.m-.vii. earlier stage of the tribal system than we have seen in Wales. It was the system which fitted easily into the artificial land divisions and clusters of home- steads. And this method of clustering homesteads, in its turn, not only facilitated, but even made possible those frequent redistributions which mark this early stage of the tribal system. The method of artificial clustering was apparently widely spread through Ireland, as we found it in the various divisions of Wales. It also was ancient; for according to an early Thei poem, supposed by Dr. Sullivan l to belong ' in sub- stance though not in language to the sixth or seventh century,' Ireland was anciently divided into 184 ' Tricha Ceds ' (30 hundreds [of cows]), each of which contained 30 bailes (or townlands) ; 5,520 bailes in all. The baile or townland is thus described : — ' A baile sustains 300 cows, Four full herds therein may roam. The poem describes the bailes (or townlands) as and pas- divided into 4 quarters, i.e, a quarter for each of the 4 herds of 75 cows each. The poem further explains that the baile or town- Baiiys and land was equal to 12 ' seisrighs' (by some translated quai ' plough-lands '), and that the latter land measure is 120 acres,2 making the quarter equal to three ' seisrighs ' 1 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, E. O'Curry. Dr. Sullivan's Introduction, p. xcvi. See also Skene's Celtic Scotland, iii. 154. 2 Skene, iii. 155. p. xcii. Sullivan, 222 The Tribal System. Chap. vn. or 360 acres. But this latter mode of measurement is probably a later innovation introduced with the growth of arable farms. The old system was division into quarters, and founded on the prevalent pastoral habits of the people. In the earliest records Con- naught is found to be divided into ballys, and the ballys into quarters, which were generally distinguished by certain mears and bounds.1 The quarters were sometimes called ' cartrons,' but in other cases the cartron was the quarter of a quarter, i.e. a ' tate.' O'Kelly's county in 1589 was found to contain 665J quarters of 120 acres each.2 Lastly, it may be mentioned that in the re-allot- ment of the lands in Eoscommon to the sept of the Grames on their removal from Cumberland each family of the better class was to receive a quarter of land containing 120 acres.3 The evidence as regards Scotland is scanty, but Mr. Skene, in his interesting chapter on ' the tribe in ' Scotland,' has collected together sufficient evidence to show that the tribal organisation in the Gaelic dis- tricts was closely analogous to that in Ireland.4 and in the There are also indications that the Isle of Man was Man" anciently divided into ballys and quarters.5 The system in Scotland 1 Skene, iii. 158, quoting a tract published in the appendix to Tribes and Customs of Ily Fiachraich, p. 453. 2 Id. p. 160, quoting the Tribes and Customs of Hy Many. 3 Calendars of State Papers, Ire- land, 1606-8, pp. 491-2. 4 Skene's Celtic Scotland, iii. c. vi. 6 In a poem of the sixteenth century (1507-22), in Manks, given in Train's Isle of Man, i. p. 50, occur the lines — ' Ayns dagh treen Bailey ren eh unnane D'an sleih shen ayn dy beet dy gbuee,' alluding to St. Germain ; trans- lated thus by Mr. Train : — The Irish Evidence. 223 The old tribal division of the ballys into ■ quar- ters ' and * tates ' has left distinct and numerous tra .-■£'" 1 .GRAHAM t_ r- ^ M The Irish Evidence. 225 ing the sites of the old ' tates' are still to be traced Chap.vji in one or two cases. The acreage of eacli townland is given on the map in English measures. It will be remembered that in Monaghan 60 Irish acres were allotted to each tate instead of the usual 30. This evidence will be sufficient to prove that the arithmetical clustering of the homesteads was real, and that, as in Wales, so in Ireland, under the tribal sys- tem the homesteads were scattered over the country, and not grouped together in villages and towns.1 Passing to the methods of agriculture, it is obvious, that, even in a pastoral state, the growth of corn cannot be wholly neglected. We have seen that in Wales there was agriculture, and that, so far as it ex- tended, the ploughing was conducted on an open- field system, and by joint-ploughing. It was precisely so also in Ireland, and it had been from time immemorial. It is stated in the ' Book of the Dun Cow ' (Lebor Openfioids. na Huidre), compiled in the seventh century by the Abbot of Clanmacnois, known to us in an Irish MS. of the year 1100, that ' there was not a ditch, nor fence, ' nor stone wall round land till came the period of the ' sons of Aed Slane [in the seventh century], but only ' smooth fields.' Add to this the passage pointed out by Sir H. S. Maine 2 in the ' Liber Hymnorum ' (a MS. probably of the eleventh century), viz. — 1 ' Neither did any of them in all this time plant any gardens or orchards, enclose or improve their lands, live together in settled vil- lages or towns.' — Discovert/ of Ire- land, p. 170. Compare this with the description of the Germans by Tacitus. It was, as Sir John Davies remarks, a condition of things ' to be imputed to those [tribal] customs which made their estates so uncertain and transitory in their possessions ' (id.). 2 Early History of Institutions p. 113. Q 226 Tlie Tribal System. Chap. VII. The run- rig or Hundale system in Ireland and Scot- land. ' Very numerous were the inhabitants of Ireland at this time [the time of the sons of Aed Slane in the seventh century], and their number was so great that they only received in the partition 3 lots of 9 ridges [immaire] of land, namely 9 ridges of bog land, 9 of forest, and 9 of arable land.' Taking these two passages together, and noting that the word for ' ridges ' (immaire) is the same word (imire, or iomair x) now used in Gaelic for a ridge of land, and that the recently remaining system of strips and balks in Ireland and Scotland is still known as the 'run-rig ' system, it becomes clear that whatever there was of arable land in any particular year lay in open fields divided into ridges or strips. There are, further, some passages in the Brelion Laws which show that at least among the lower grades of tribesmen there was joint-ploughing. And this arose not simply from 'joint-tenancy' of un- divided land by co-heirs,2 but from the fact that the tribesmen of lower rank only possessed portions of the requisites of a plough,3 just as was the case with Welsh tribesmen and the Saxon holders of yard-lands. There can be little doubt, therefore, that we must picture the households of tribesmen occupying the four ' tates ' in each ' quarter ' as often combining to produce the plough team, and as engaged to some extent in joint-ploughing. 1 Skene's Celtic Scotland, iii. p. 381. 2 As to joint-tenancy between co-heirs, see tract called ' Judg- ments of Co-tenancy.' Brehon Laws, iv. pp. 09 et seq. 3 See the tract ' Crith Gablach.' Brehon Laws, iv. pp. 300 et seq. One grade has ' a fourth part of a ploughing apparatus, i.e. an ox, a plough-straw, a goad, and a bridle ' (p. 307) ; another ' half the means of ploughing' (p. 309) ; another 'a perfect plough ' (p. 311) ; and so on. And the size of their respective houses and the amount of their food- rent is graduated also according to their rank in the tribal hierarchy. There is a reference to ' tillage in common ' in the ' Senchus Mor.' Brelion Laws, iii. p. 17. The Irish Evidence. 227 At first, what little agriculture was needful would Ohap.YH be, like the Welsh 'coaration of the waste,' the joint- ploughing of grass land, which after the year's crop, or perhaps three or four years' crop, would go back into grass.1 But it would seem from the passa quoted above, that the whole quarter of normally 120 Irish acres was at first divided into 'ridges' — possibly Irish acres — to facilitate the allotment among the households not only of that portion which was arable for the year, but also of the shares in the bog and the forest. No doubt originally there was plenty of mountain pasture besides the thirty, or sometimes sixty scattered acres or ridges allotted in 1 The following appeared in the dthenceum, March 3, 1883, under the signature of Mr. Q. L. Gornme : — ' The 312 acres in possession of the Corporation of Kells (co. Meath) are divided into six fields, and thus used. The fields are broken up in rotation one at a time, and tilled during four years. Before the field is broken the members of the Cor- poration repair to it with a sur- veyor, and it is marked out into equal lots, according to the existing number of resident members of the body. Each resident freeman gets one lot, each portreeve and bur- gess two lots, and the deputy sove- reign five lots. A portion of the field, generally five or six acres, is set apart for letting, and the rent obtained for it is applied to pay the tithes and taxes of the entire. The members hold their lots in severalty for four years and cultivate them as they please, and at the expiration of the fourth year the field is laid down with grass and a new one is broken, when a similar process of partition takes place. The other five fields are in the interim in pas- ture, and the right of depasturing them is enjoyed by the members of the Corporation in the same pro- portion as they hold the arable land ; that is to say, the deputy sovereign grasses five heads of cattle (called " bolls ") for every two grazed by the portreeves and burgesses, and for every one grazed by the freemen ; with this modifi- cation, however, that the widow of a burgess enjoys a right of grazing to the same extent as a freeman, and the vaidow of a freeman to half that extent. The widows do not obtain any portions of the field in tillage. I should note that the first charter of incorporation to Kells dates from Richard I.' ft2 228 The Tribal System. Chap. vii. ' run-rig ' to each ' tate ' or household. In the seventh century, as we have seen, the complaint was made that the pressure of population had reduced the shares to twenty-seven ridges instead of thirty. Finally, when we examine in the Highlands of Scotland as well as in Ireland the still remaining custom known as the ' Rundale ' or ' run-rig ' system, whereby a whole townland or smaller area is held in common by the people of the village, and shared among them in rough equality by dividing it up into a large number of small pieces, of which each holder takes one here and another there ; we see before us in Scotland as in Ireland a survival of that custom of scattered ownership which belonged to the open-field system all the world over ; whilst we mark again the absence of the yard-land, which was so constant a feature of the English system. The method is even applied to potato ground, where the spade takes the place of the plough ; and thus instead of the strip, or acre laid out for ploughing, there is the ' patch ' which so often marks the untidy Celtic townland. Existing maps of townlands, whilst showing very clearly the practice still in vogue of subdividing a holding by giving to each sharer a strip in each of the scattered parcels of which the old holding con- sisted, hardly retain traces of the ancient division of the whole ' quarter ' into equal ridges or acres. But they show very clearly the scattered ownership which has been so tenaciously adhered to, along with the old tribal practice of equal division among male heirs. An example of a modern townland is annexed, which will illustrate these interesting points. The confusion it presents will also illustrate the inherent incompati- I 3 of >►/,. ■ •',.„„ (/, different . Sanample of divisions and TuiUinpt in •• TSawnTanH, antheBaofli^sysdan t /7Y>/7i Report of Devon Gmtmissicm.see L<nq o est If this should turn out to have been the case, then the further question will arise whether under the tribal system of the Germans the beginnings of manorial tendencies can be ac far traced as to explain the ease h Prankish and Saxon conquerors :: the old Eoman provinces fell into manorial w and adopt 1 I the manor as the normal type of estate. This is the line of inquiry which it is now pro- posed to follow. zsZLz=. i:~lzisrii -— .' ;;: \\ z . ':' iix r.e:-- :•:: i^: : ._____• r — Tier; — r:e also Roman tribo- -, ■ - - - -- : '■_-_-_ : _ r'i.; .-.: ~:I :irv: li: ill Si : _ii P. :~ -.zz— c. :_: :.L.T:.r. t: :.-.:-.-r i> ::.' .-.^.r.-Z- ::::i-::z. ::: i ; -.._i : •:." -i" . 7 - ~-: - ^ . :z zz^i -■: — '.'-- -±ii .-z.:.z_ ::-: :- --.- -.: . 1 The Roman Villa. HI. THE ROMAN c VILLA,' ITS BAST TRANSITION DTTO THE LATER MANOR, AM) ITS TENDENCY TO BBC :HB PREDOMINANT TYPE OF ESTATE. The Eoman piZZa was, in fact, exceedingly a manor, and, moreover, becoming more and more ?f2ttei so in the GalHc and German provinces, at Least r maaar- the later empire as time went on. The villa, as described by Varro and Columella, a* estate. before and shortly after the was a farm — a fundus. It was not a mere residence, but. like the villa of the present day in Italy, a territory or estate in land. The lord's homestead on the villa ? - rounded The «rtu. by two enclosed ■ cohortes,' or courts, from which was derived the word ' curtis.' so often applied later manor-house.1 At the entrance of the outer cour: le abode He of the ' milieus ' — a strictly manorial officer, as - seen — generally a slave chosen for his gooi - - Xear this was the common kitchen, wha the food was cooked, but also the slaves performed their indoor work. Here ak Dais md granaries for the storing of produc-.-. I were the night quarters of 1 - - the under- ground ■ :.; with its narrow and out of reach, w - 1 slaves i in chains lived, worked, w bed; for 1 Varro. i. 13. ; Ca.:?. i?. i?. 2. Colum £. L S-8. AL Guerard =avs . ; - ■ - - '.- i:=_ :. .- . - . m...' meBB I Poljfptique dlrmiiwn, i - . 264 The Roman Land System. Chap, in the erqastulum was revealed the cruel side of the VIII 1 system of slave labour under Eoman law. Columella says that the cleverest slaves must oftenest be kept in chains.1 Cato, according to Plutarch, advised that slaves should be incited to quarrel amongst them- selves, lest they should conspire against their master, and considered it to be cheaper to work them to death than to let them grow old and useless.2 In the inner ' cohort ' were the stalls and stables for the oxen, horses, and other live stock ; and all around was the land to be tilled. Thus the Eoman villa, if not at first a complete manor, was already an estate of a lord (dominus) worked by slaves under a villicus. Sometimes the whole work of the estate was done by slaves ; and though the estimates of historians have varied very much, there is no reason to doubt that in the first and second centuries the proportion of slaves to the whole population of the empire was enormous. The decu- But even the management of slaves required slaves. organisation. The anciently approved Roman method of managing the slaves on a villa was to form them into groups of tens, called decurioz, each under an overseer or decurio.8 The villicus, or general steward of the manor, was sometimes a freedman. And there was a strong reason why a freedman was often put in a position of trust, viz. that if he should be dishonest, or show 1 Columella, De Re Rustica, i. 8. i quam denuni horninuni faciunda?, 2 Plutarch, Cato, c. 21. See Cod, quas decurias appellaveruut antiqui Theod. IX. xii. et maxiuie probaveruut.' — Colll- 3 ' Classes etiaui uon luajores mella, i. 9. The Roman Villa. 265 ingratitude to his patron, he was liable to be degraded Chap. again into slavery. There is an interesting fragment 1 of Koman law which suggests that the decurio of a gang of slaves was sometimes zfreedman, and that it was a common practice to assign to the freedman a portion of land and a decuria of slaves, and no doubt oxen also to work it, thus putting him very much in the position of a colonus with slaves under him. The result of his betrayal of trust, in the case mentioned in the fragment, was his degradation, and the re- sumption by his patron of the decuria of slaves.1 Thus we learn that the lord of a villa might, in addition to his home farm worked by the slaves in his own homestead, have portions of the land of his estate let out, as it were, to farm to freedmen, each with his decuria of slaves, and paying rent in produce. There was nothing very peculiarly Eoman in this Gronps of system of classification in tens. The fact that men ten8, everywhere have ten fingers makes such a classifica- tion all but universal. But the Eomans certainly did use it for a variety of purposes — for taxation and military organisation as well as in the management of the slaves of a villa. And M. Guerard, probably with reason, connects these decuria? of the Eoman villa with the decania?, or groups of originally ten servile holdings, under a villicus or decanus, which are described on the estates of the Abbey of St. Ger- main in the Survey of the Abbot Irminon about a.d. 850.2 So possibly a survival of a similar system may be traced also in the much earlier instances men- tioned by Bede under date a.d. 655, in one of which 1 Fragment Jur. Rom. Vatic. I a Polyptique d'Irminun, i. pp. 272. Huschke, p. 774. I 45 and 456. 266 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. The coloni. on a villa. King Oswy grants to the monastery at Hartlepool twelve possessiunculos, each of ' ten families ; ' and in the other of which the abbess Hilda, having obtained a 'possession of ten families,' proceeds to build Whitby Abbey.1 In all these cases of the Eonian freedman and his decuria, the Gallic decanus and his decania, and the Saxon possessiuncula of ten families, there is the bundle of ten slaves or semi-servile tenants with their holdings, treated as the smallest usual territorial division.2 But to return to the Roman villa. The organisa- tion of decurios of slaves was not the only resource of the lord in the management of his estate. Varro speaks of its being an open point, to be decided according to the circumstances of each farm, whether it were better to till the land by slaves or by freemen, or by both.3 And Columella, speaking of the families or ' hands ' upon a farm, says ' they ' are either slaves or coloni ; ' 4 and he goes on to say, * It is pleasanter to deal with coloni, and easier to get 1 out of them work than payments. . . . They will ' sooner ask to be let off the one than the other. The ' best coloni,' he says, ' are those which are indigeni, ' born on the estate and bound by hereditary ties * to it.' Especially distant corn farms, he considers. are cultivated with less trouble by free coloni than by slaves under a villicus, because slaves are dishonest and lazy, neglect the cattle, and waste the produce ; 1 Bede, III. c. xxiv. ' Singulae possessions decern erant fauiili- aruui.' 2 See also the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, anno 777, where mention is made of ' 10 honde lands ' given to the monks at Medeshampstede. 3 Varro, i. xvii. 4 Columella, i. vii. The Roman Villa. 2G7 whilst coloni, sharing in the produce, have a joint Chap. interest with their lord. '. That the coloni sometimes were indigeni upon the Adscript estate, and were sometimes called originarii, shows (jU a' the beginning at least of a tendency to treat them as adscripti gleboz, like the mediseval ' nativi.' Indeed, we find it laid down in the later laws of the empire that coloni leaving their lord's estate could be re- claimed at any time within thirty years.1 And nothing could more clearly indicate the growth of the semi- servile condition of the colonus, as time went on, than the declaration (a.d. 531) that the son of a colonus who had done no service to the ' dominus terrae ' during his father's lifetime, and had been absent more than thirty or forty years, could be recalled upon his father's death and obliged to continue the services due from the holding.2 We know from Tacitus that the typical colonus had his own homestead and land allotted to his use, and paid tribute to his lord in corn or cattle, or other produce. And there is a clause in the Justinian Code prohibiting the arbitrary increase of these tri- butes, another point in which the coloni resembled the later villani.3 A villa under a villicus, with servi under him Likeness living within the ' curtis ' of the villa, and with a little group of coloni in their vicus also upon the estate, but outside the court, would thus be very much like a later manor indeed. And Frontinus,4 describing 1 ' Si quia colonus originrtis vel inquiiinus ante hos triginta an- cos de possessione discessit,' &c. —Cod. Theod. v. tit. x. 1. 2 Cod. Just. xi. tit. xlvii. 22. 3 Cod. Just. xi. tit. xlix. 1. 4 Frontini, Lib. ii. De confro- versiis Agrorum. Lachmann, p. 6iJ. 268 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. Village round a villa. The villa becoming the preva- lent type of estate. the great extent of the latifundia, especially of pro- vincial landowners, expressly says that on some of these private estates there was quite a population of rustics, and that often there were villages sur- rounding the villa like fortifications. It would seem then that the villas in the provinces were still more like manors than those in Italy. It is now generally admitted that indirectly, at least, the Eoman conquest of German territory — the extension of the Eoman province beyond the Ehine and along the Danube — added greatly to the number of semi-servile tenants upon the Eoman provincial estates, and so tended more and more to increase during the later empire the manorial character of the ' villa ; ' whilst at the same time the pressure of Eoman taxation within the old province of Gaul, and beyond it, was so great as steadily to force more and more of the free tenants on the Ager Publicus to surrender their freedom and swell the numbers of the semi-servile class on the greater estates ; so that not only was the villa becoming more and more manorial itself, but also it was becoming more and more the prevalent type of estate. As regards the first point, during the later em- pire there was direct encouragement given to land- owners to introduce barbarians taken from recently conquered districts, and to settle them on their estates as coloni, and not as slaves. These foreign coloni became very numerous under the name of tributarii and perhaps ' lseti ; ' so that the proportion of coloni to ' Frequenter in provinces .... habent autem in baltilms privati non exiguuin populuin plt-leium el vicos circa villain in modum inuui- tionum.' The Roman Villa. 209 slaves was probably, during the later period of Roman rule, always increasing, and the Roman villa under its villicus was becoming more and more like a later manor, with a semi-servile village community of coloni or tributarii upon it in addition to the slaves.1 As regards the second point, the evidence will be given at a later stage of the inquiry. Chap. VIII. Confining our attention at present to the Roman villa, and the slaves and semi-servile tenants upon it, we have finally to add to the fact of close resem- blance to the later manor and manorial tenants proof of actual historical connexion and continuity in dis- tricts where the evidence is most complete. A clear and continuous connexion can be traced in many cases, at all events in Gaul, between the Roman villa and the later manor. In the letters of Sidonius Apollinaris the Visi- gothic and Burgundian invaders are described as adapting themselves roughly and coarsely to Roman habits in many respects. He speaks of their being put into the ' villas ' as ; hospites.' Indeed, it is well known that these Teutonic invaders settled as in- German vited guests, being called hospites or gasti ; 2 that villas, they shared the villas and lands of the Romans on the same system as that which was adopted when Roman legions — often of German soldiers — were quartered on a district, according to a well-known 1 Cod. Theod. v. tit. iv. 3, a..d. 409. By this edict liberty is given for landowners to settle upon their property, as free coloni, people of the recently conquered ' Scyras ' (a tribe inhabiting the present ' Moravia '). 2 Sid. Apol. Epist. ii. xii. He complains that a governor partial to barbarians 'implet villas hospi- tifats.' 270 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. Villas given to the Church. passage of the ' Codex Theodosianus.' 1 They took their sortes, or fixed proportions of houses and lands and slaves, and, sharing the lordship of these with their Eoman ' consortes,' they must have sanctioned and adapted themselves to the manorial character of the villas whose occupation they shared, ultimately becoming themselves lords of villas probably as ma- norial as any Eoman villas could be.2 Dr. P. Eoth has shown that in Frankish districts many of the wealthy provincials remained, under Frankish rule, in unbroken possession of their former estates — their numerous ' villae.' Amongst these the bishops and abbots were conspicuous examples. He shows that thousands of ' villae ' thus remained un- changed upon the widely extended ecclesiastical estates.3 Gregory of Tours speaks of the restitution by King Hildebert of the ' villas ' unjustly seized under the law- less regime of Hilperic.4 He also relates how bishops and monasteries were endowed by the transfer to them of villas with the slaves and coloni upon them. Under the year 582, he mentions the death of a certain Chrodinus, also the subject of a poem by Fortunatus, a great benefactor of the clergy, and describes him as ' founding villas, setting vineyards, 4 building houses [domos], making fields [culturas],' and then, having invited bishops of slender means to 1 Cod. Theod. lib. vii. tit. viii. h. Compare as regards the Bur- guvdian settlement the passages in the Burffundifin Lares, carefully commented upon in Binding's ' Das Burgundiech-Romaniiiche Konig- reich, von 448 6m 632 a.d.,' 1, c. i. s. ii. et seq. 2 Binding, p. 36. And they called them villas. Leges Burg. T. 38-9. 3 Roth's Geschichte des Benefi- cialwesens, p. 81. 4 Hist. Francoru?nf f. 344. The Roman Villa. 271 his table, after dinner ' kindly distributing these * houses, with the cultivators and the fields, with the 1 furniture, and male and female servants and house- ' hold slaves [ministris et famulis], saying, " These are 1 " given to the Church, and whilst with these the 1 " poor will be fed, they will secure to me favour «" with God."'1 Here, then, after the Frankish conquest, we have the word villa still used for the typical estate ; and the estate consists of the domus, with the vineyards and the fields, and their cultivators. Turning to the earliest monastic records we have seen that the ' villas ' or ' heims ' of the abbeys of Wizenburg and Lorsch were in fact manors. The donations to the Abbot of St. Germain-des- Pr^s,2 in the neighbourhood of Paris, commenced in the year 558, and in the survey of the estates of the Abbey made in the year 820, there are described villas still cultivated by coloni, leti, &c. — villas which grew into villages which now bear the names of the villas out of which they sprang : — Levari Villa, now LevaviUe (p. 90). Landulfi Villa, now Zandonville (p. 94). Aneis Villa, now Anville. Gaudeni Villa, now Grinville (p. 99). Sonani Villa, now Senainville (p. 100). Villa Alleni, now Allainville (p. 102). Ledi Villa, now Laideville (p. 102). Disboth Villa, now Bouville (p. 104). Mornane Villare, now Mainvilliers (p. 112). And bo on in numbers of instances. The chartulary of the Abbey of St. Bertin also Chap. VIII. Villas be- come vil- 1 Hist. Francwum, f. 295. 2 Polyptique d'lrminon. Large donations were made to the abbey as early as A.D. 558 by the Frank- ish King Hildebert, See M. Gue- rard's Introduction, p. 35. 272 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. and ' hems which are contains instructive examples. By the earliest charter of a.d. 648 the founder of the abbey granted to the monks his villa called * Sitdiu,' and it included within it twelve sub-estates, one of them, the Tattinga Villa, which later is called in the cartulary Tatting aheim} The chief villa with these sub-estates was granted to the abbey ' cum domibus, cedijiciis, terris cultis et iincultis, mansiones cum silvis pratis pascuis, aquis 1 aquarumve decursibus, seu farinariis, mancipiis, acco- ' labus, greges cum pastoribus,' &c. &c, and therefore was a manor with both slaves (mancipia) and coloni, or other semi-servile tenants (accola?) upon it, as indeed were the generality of villas handed over to the monasteries. There seems, therefore, to be conclusive evidence not only of a remarkable resemblance, but also in many cases of a real historical continuity between the Roman ' villa ' and the later Frankish manor. Tenants on the Ager l'ublicus. IV. THE SMALLER TENANTS ON THE AGER PUBLICTJS IN ROMAN PROVINCES — THE VETERANS. Passing from that part of the land m Roman provinces included in the villas, or latifundia, of the richer Romans, and so placed under private lordship, we must now turn our attention to the wide tracts of 4 Ager Publicus,' and try to discover the position and social economy of the tenants, so to speak, on the great provincial manor of the Roman Emperor. Care must be taken to discriminate between the Chartularium Sithiense, pp. 18 and 168. votorans. The Small Holdings. 273 different classes of these tenants, some of them being Cha*. of a free and some of them of a semi-servile kind. 1 First, there were the veterans of the legions, who, The according to Eoman custom, were settled on the public lands at the close of a war, by way of pay for their services. For the settlement of these, sometimes regularly Regular constituted military colonice were founded ; and in this case, where everything had to be started de novo, a large tract of land was divided for the purpose by straight roads and lanes — pointing north, and south, and east, and west — into centurice of mostly 200 or 240 jugera, which were then sub-divided into equal rectangular divisions, according to the elaborate rules of the Agrimensores,1 the odds and ends of land, chiefly woods and marshes, being alone left to be used in common by the ' vicini,' or body of settlers. But in other cases the settlement was much more irregular and haphazard in its character. Sometimes the veteran received his pay and his outfit, and was left to settle wherever he could find un- occupied land — c vacantes terrce ' — to his mind. Under the later empire, owing to the constant ravages of German tribes, there was no lack of land ready for cultivators, without the appliance of the red-tape rules of the Agrimensore*. The veterans settled upon this and occupied it pretty much as they liked, taking what they wanted according to their present or prospective means of cultivating it. Lands thus holding" taken were called ' agri occujoatorii,' and were irre- 1 Mr. Coote lias pointed out many remains of this centuviation in Britain ; and the inscriptions on many centurial stones are given in Hiibner'8 collection. 274 The Roman Land System. Chap. VHI. Outfit of oxen and seed of two kinds. Single or double tuga. gular in their boundaries and divisions, instead of being divided into the rectangular centurice} It is to these more irregular occupations of terri- tory that the chief interest attaches. When, under the later empire, veterans were allowed to settle upon ' vacantes terrce,' they had assigned to them an outfit of oxen and seed closely resembling the Saxon ■ setene ' and the Northumbrian ' stuht.' Those of the upper grade, whether so considered from military rank or special service rendered by them to the State, were provided, according to the edicts of a.d. 320 and 364, with an outfit of two pairs of oxen and 100 modii of each of two kinds of seed. Those of lower rank received as outfit one pair of oxen and fifty modii of each of the two kinds of seed.2 And the land they cultivated with these single or double yokes of oxen was perhaps called their single or double jugum. Cicero, in his oration 1 Siculus Flaccus, Lachmann and Rudorff, i. pp. 136-8. 8 Cod. Theod. lib. vii. tit. xx. 3. a.d. 320. ' Constantinus ad universos veteranos.' ' Let veterans according to our command receive vacant lands, and hold them " im- munes " for ever ; and for the need- ful improvement of the country let them have also 25 thousand folles, a pair of oxen {bourn quoque par}, and 100 modii of different kinds of grain, &c. (fruffum).' lb. 8. 8. ' Valentinianus et Va- lcns ad universos provinciates,' a.d. o<;4. 'To all deserving veterans we give what dwelling-place (pn- triam) they wish, and promise per- petual "immunity.r ' Let them have vacant or other lands where they chose, free from stipendium and annual " praestatio." Further, we grant them for the cul- tivation of these lands both animals and seed, so that those who have been protectores (body-guards) should re- ceive two pairs of oxen {duo bourn porta) and 100 modii, of each of the two kinds of corn (/ruffes) — others after faithful service a single pair of oxen (singula paria bourn) and 50 modii of each of the two kinds of corn, &c. If they bring male or female slaves on to the land, let them possess them " immune* " for ever.' The Small Holdings. 275 against Verres, speaks of the Sicilian peasants as Chap. mostly cultivating ' in singulis jugis.' ! During the L later empire the typical holding of land — the hypo- thetical unit for purposes of taxation — as we shall Theju3um see, came to be the jugum, but the assessment no longer always corresponded with the actual holdings. But to return to the holding of the Eoman veteran. It is not impossible to ascertain roughly its normal acreage from the amount of seed allotted in the out- fit, as well as from the number of oxen. A single pair of oxen was, as we have seen, allotted of about under Saxon rules as outfit to the yard-land of Jugera' thirty acres, of which, under the three-field or three- course system, ten acres would be in wheat, ten in oats or pulse, and ten in fallow. With the single pair of oxen was allotted to the veteran fifty modii of wheat seed, and fifty of oats or pulse. Five modii of wheat seed, according to the Roman writers on agriculture, commonly went to the jugerum ; 2 so that the veteran with a single yoke of oxen had seed for ten jugera of wheat, and thus was apparently as- sumed to be able to cultivate, if farming on the three-course system, about thirty jugera in all, like the holder of the Saxon yard-land. The veteran to whom was assigned the double yoke of four oxen and 200 modii of seed — 100 modii of each kind — would have about 60 jugera in his double holding. Of course, too much stress should not be placed upon any close correspondence in the number of jugera ; but it is, on the other hand, perfectly natural 1 In Verrem, Actio 2, lib. iii. 27. I Columella, ii. 9. Ouerard, Irminon, 2 Varro, De Re liustica, i. 44. | i. 1. T 2 276 The Roman Land System. Chap, that, in the theory of these outfits, seed should be 1 given for a definite area, and that this should be some actual division of the centuria of the Agri- mensores. Siculus Flaccus, who wrote about a.d. 100, and chiefly of Italy, describes how, in the regular allot- ments by the Agrimensores, one settler, according to his military rank, would receive a single modus, another one and a half, and another two modii, whilst sometimes a single allotment was given to Normal several people jointly. He mentions also that the centuria centuria? varied in size, being sometimes 200 jugera 200 and ' ° ° ,° 240jugera. and sometimes 240 ; the smaller lots also sometimes varying in size, even in the same centuria, according to the fertility or otherwise of the land.1 All we can say is that the centuria of 240 jugera would be divisible into single and double holdings of thirty and sixty jugera respectively, just as the English double hide of 240 acres, or single hide of 120 acres, was divisible into yard- lands of thirty acres. The centuria of 200 jugera would be divisible into holdings of fifty and twenty-five jugera respec- tively.2 Passing from the outfit and the holdings, it may 1 Siculus Flaccus, De Conditio- quinquagenis jugeribus,' the ' ager nibus Agrorum. Laehmann and Rudorff, i. pp. 154-6. 2 In the division of the land between the Romans and Visigoths meridianus in xxv. jugeribus.' Laeh- mann, i. 247. Here we have the normal divisions of the centuria of 200 jugera into holdings of 25 and the amount allotted 'per singula 00 jugera. On the other hand, the aratra' was to be 50 aripennes (i.e. Lex Thoria,n.c. Ill, fixed 30 jugera 25 jugera). Lex Visigothorum, x. 1, 14 (a.d. G50 or thereabouts). The Liber Coloniarum I. de- pcribes the ' ager jugarius ' as ' in as the largest holding to be recog nised on the public lands. Rudorff, p. 213 (Corp. Jur. Lot. 200, 1. 14). The Small Holdings. 277 be asked, what was the system of cultivation ? was it Chap. J VIII. an open field husbandry ? It is obvious that formal centuriation in straight lines and rectangular divisions, by the Agrimensores, produced something entirely different from the open Traces of field system as we have found it in England. But fieidPhus- Siculus Flaccus records that in some cases, when greases. vacant districts were occupied by settlers without this formal centuriation, as ' agri occupatorii ' — the settlers taking such tracts of land as they had the means or expectation of cultivating — the boundaries were irregular, and followed no rules but those of common sense and the custom of the country.1 And he gives as an instance of such a common-sense rule the custom about ' supercilia,' or linches, the sloping SuperdUa surface of which, where they formed boundaries between the land of two owners, should be kept the same number of feet in width, the slope always belonging to the upper owner, because otherwise it would be in the power of the lower owner, by ploughing into the slope, to jeopardise the upper owner's land.2 This, he says, is the reason of the rule that the land of the owner of the upper terrace generally descends to the bottom of the slope.3 Here, in this mention of linches and irregular The hoid- boundaries, traces seem to turn up of an open-field times husbandry ; and a few pages further on the same oHcS^ writer makes another observation which shows clearly t®red J pieces. that frequently the holding, like the yard-land, was 1 P. 142. * Quam maxitne se- cundum consuetudinem regionum omnia intuenda sunt.' a P. 143. See also Frontinus, p. 43, and Hyginus, p. 115, and p. 128 on the same point. 3 P. 162. 278 The Roman Land System. Chap, composed of scattered pieces in open fields, and that this scattered ownership, as in England, was the result of an original joint occupation, and probably of a system of co-operative ploughing. He says x that in many districts were to be found possessores whose lands were not contiguous, but made up of little pieces scattered in different places, and intermixed with those of the others, the several owners having common rights of way over one another's land to their scattered pieces, and also to the common woods, in which the vicini only have common rights of cutting timber and feeding stock. This reference to the common woods and rights of way belonging only to the ' vicini ' seems to show that the scattering of the pieces in the holdings had arisen as in the later open-field system, from an origi- nal co-operation of ploughing or other cultivation. The result Connecting these statements with the previous occupa- one, that sometimes land was assigned to a number of settlers jointly, and that sometimes settlers took possession, without centuriation, of so much land as they could cultivate, and transferring these same methods from Italy, where Flaccus observed them, to transalpine provinces, where larger teams were 1 Siculus Flaccus, Lachmann, sumus. Quorundam agri servitu- p. 152. ' Prseterea et in multia tern possessoribus ad particulas suas regionibus comperimus quosdam . eundi redeundique praestant. Quo- possessores non continuas habere i rundam etiam vicinoruni aliquas terras, sed particulas quasdam in ; silvas quasi publicas, iiumo proprias diversis locis, intervenientibus com- ' quasi vicinorum, esse comperimus, plurium possessionibus : propter nee quemquam in eis cedendi pas- quod etiam complurea vicinales ; cendique jus habere nisi vicinoa quo- viae sint, ut unusquisque possit ad rum sint : ad quas itinera saspe, ut particulas suas jure pervenire. Sed supra diximus, per alienos agros et de viarum conditionibua locuti dantur.' The Small Holdings. 279 needful for ploughing, it would seem that we may ClIAP- rightly picture bodies of free settlers on the ' ager VI1J- publicus' as frequently joining their yokes of oxen together to plough their allotments on the open- field system. And if this was done by retired veterans on public land, they were probably only following the common method adopted by the coloni on the villas of the richer Eoman landowners in the provinces. If they did so, they probably simply adopted the custom of the country in which they settled, and followed a method common not only to Gaul and Germany, but also to Europe and Asia.1 Even in the case of the regular centuriation, there The was an opportunity, apparently, for joint occupation, and probably often a necessity for joint ploughing. Hyginus, describing the mode of centuriation, speaks first of the two broad roads running north and south and east and west ; and then he says the ' sortes ' were divided, and the names recorded in tens {per decurias, i.e. per homines denos), the subdivision among the ten being left till afterwards.2 It does not follow, perhaps, that the subdivision was always made in regular squares. There may sometimes have been a common occupation and joint plough- ing ; but of this we know nothing. The retired veterans were a privileged class, and The . ° veterans a specially exempted from many public burdens ; 3 but privileged in other respects there is no reason to suppose that in their methods of settlement and agriculture, and method of centuria- tion. 1 Teams of six and of eight oxen in the plough are mentioned in the Vedas. ' Altindisches Leben,' H. Zimmer. Berlin, 1879, p. 237. 8 Hyginus, Lachmann and Ru- dorff, i. 113. 3 See Codex Theodosianus, vii. tit. xx. s. 9, a.d. 306. 280 The Roman Land System. ^J in the size of their holdings proportioned to their single or double yokes, they differed from other free settlers or ancient original tenants on the ager publicus. We may add that, following the usual Roman custom, these settlers probably as a rule lived in towns and villages, and not on their farms. We may assume that, having single or double yokes of oxen and outfits of two kinds of seed, they were arable and not pasture farmers, with their home- steads in the village and their land in the fields around it — in some places under the three-field system, in others with a rectangular block of land on which they followed the three-course or other rotation of crops for themselves. Groups of settlers may therefore be regarded as sometimes forming something very much like a free village community upon the public land of the Empire, with no lord over it except the fiscal and judicial officers of the Emperor. V. THE SMALLER TENANTS ON THE 'AGER PUBLICUS ' (continued) — the l^eti. The Lati In the second place, there were settlers of quite servile another grade — families of the conquered tribes of the8We£h Germany, who were forcibly settled within the limes tu J*- of the Roman provinces, in order that they might repeople desolated districts or replace the other- wise dwindling provincial population — in order that they might bear the public burdens and minister to the public needs, i.e. till the public land, pay the The Small Holdings. 281 public tribute, and also provide for the defence of ^nAp- the empire. They formed a semi-servile class, partly 1 agricultural and partly military ; they furnished corn for the granaries and soldiers for the cohorts of the empire, and were generally known in later times by the name of ' Lceti,' or ' Liti.' 1 They were somewhat in the same position as the Welsh ' taeogs ' or ' aillts.'' They were foreigners, without Eoman blood, and hence a semi-servile class of occupiers distinct from, and without the full rights of, Eoman citizens2 — a class, in short, upon whom the full burden of taxation and military service could be laid. Probably this system had been followed from the Mostly time of Augustus, as a substitute for the earlier and Germans, more cruel course of sending tens of thousands of vanquished foes to the Eoman slave market for sale ; but it became a more and more important part of the imperial defensive policy of Eome during the later empire, as the inroads of barbarians became more and more frequent. There is clear evidence, from the third century, system of of the extension of this kind of colonisation over emigration a wide district. It is important to realise both its J™?ed°dTs- extent and locality. In order fully to comprehend the meaning and consequences of this German colonisation of Eoman provinces, it must be borne in mind that the rich lands on the left bank of the Ehine, between the Vosges mountains and the river, tricts. had been settled 1 Id Cod. Theod. vii. xx. s. 10, a.d. 369/ lseti ' are mentioned ; and in s. 12, a.d. 400, ' laetus Alaman- nus Savmata, vagus, vel filius veterani/ are mentioned together. 8 Compare the Welsh aillt, or alltud (Saxon althud, foreigner), and the Aldiones of the Lombardic laws, with the Lceti. 282 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. A German population already in Rhaetia, the Agri Decumates, and in Elsass. The Ala- manni. The Limes, or ' Pfuhl- qraben' by Germans before the time of Tacitus. Strabo 1 dis- tinctly says that the Suevic tribes, who in his day dwelt on the east bank of the Rhine, had driven out the former German inhabitants, and that the latter had taken refuge on the west bank. Tacitus de- scribes three German tribes as settled in this district (now Elsass).2 Further, the large extent of country to the east of the Rhine, within the Roman lines, reaching from Mayence to Regensburg, included in the Agri Decumates and the old province of Rhsetia (i.e. what is now Baden, Wirtemberg, and Bavaria), had by the third century become filled with strag- gling offshoots from various German and mostly Suevic tribes who had crossed the ' Limes ' — a mixed population of Hermunduri, Thuringi, Marcomanni, and Juthungi, with a sprinkling of Franks, Vandals, Longobards, and Burgundians, — some of them friendly, some of them hostile to the empire and gradually becoming absorbed in the greater group of the ' Alamanni.' Further, it should be remembered that in the third century offshoots from the Alamanni and the Franks attempted to spread themselves over the country on the Gallic side of the Rhine, assuming, during periods of Roman weakness, a certain independence and even over-lordship, so that Probus found sixty cities under their control. Probus completely re- duced them once more into obedience, and again made the Roman authority supreme over the ' Agri Decumates,' and Rha^tia as far as the ' Limes.' 3 1 B. iv. c. iii. s. 4. 2 Germania, 28i 3 The importance of the Limes or Pfahlyraben as marking the ex- tent of Roman rule to the east of the Rhine, has recently been fully The Small Holdings. 283 A few years before, Marcus Antoninus, after he Chap. had conquered the Marcomanni in this district, had . deported many of them into Britain.1 Probus followed his example, and deported also ^rceA colonist" into Britain such of the Burgundians and Vandals tioninBri- from the ' Agri Decumates ' as he could secure alive Beigfc" as prisoners, ' in order that they might be useful as GauL security against revolts in Britain.' 2 He also colonised large numbers of Germans in of Li • - n / t t • 'n Belgic the Jtthme valley (where he introduced, it is said, the Gaul and vine culture), and some of them in Belgic Gaul. In vaney.se his report to the Senate he described his victory as the reconquest of all Germany. He boasted of the subjection of the numerous petty kings, and declared that the Germans now ploughed, and sowed, and fought for the Eomans. And, as he himself had de- ported Germans into Britain, his words cover the British as well as the Gallic and German provinces.3 This victory over the Alamannic tribes and colonisa- tion of them in Britain and Gaul, by Probus, was in a.d. 277. Very soon afterwards the same policy was again followed in dealing with the Pranks, who were plun- dering and depopulating the Belgic provinces of Gaul further to the north, and ravaging the coasts of Britain. realised. See Wilhelm Arnold's Deutsche Urzeit, c. iii. ' Der Pfahlgraben und seine Bedeutung.'' See also ' Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen ' (Berlin, 1882), Abth. 48, c. viii. And Mr. Hodg- kin's interesting paper on ' The Pfahlgraben' in Archceologia A?li- ana, pt. 25, vol. ix. new series, i 252. Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1882. 1 Gibbon, c. ix., quoting Dion. Cos., lxxi. and lxxii. 2 Zosimus, i. p. 68. Excerpta, Mon. Brit. lxxv. 3 Wietersbeim's Geschichte der Vblkerwanderung (Dabn), i. 215. Guerard'a I'olypt. cTIrminuii, i. p. 284 The Roman Land System. Chap. VilJ. Further deporta- tions of Franks, Frisians, and Cha- mavi. In 286, Carausius, who was put in charge of the Eoman fleet, and whose business it was to guard the Gallic and British shores infested by the Saxons and Franks, revolted and proclaimed himself Emperor, defending himself successfully against the Emperor Maximian, and leaguing himself with the Franks and Saxons. In 291, Maximian, after directing his arms against the Franks, deported a number of them and settled them as laeti on the vacant lands of the Nervii and Treviri, in Belgic Gaul and in the valley of the Moselle.1 The further steps taken by his co-Caesar Constan- tius to put an end to the revolt of Carausius are very instructive. He first recovered the haven of Gesori- acum (Boulogne), and cut off the connexion of the British fleet with Gaul. Then he turned northward again upon the districts from whence the Frankish and Saxon pirates had been accustomed to make their ravages upon Britain and Gaul. They were, as has been said, in league with the British usurper, but succumbed to the arms of Constantius. The first use he made of his victory over them was to repeat the policy of his predecessors — to deport a great multitude into those very Belgic districts which they had depopulated by their ravages. This was the time when the districts around Amiens and Beau- vais, once inhabited by the Bellovaci, and further south around Troyes and Langres, where the Tricassi and Lingones had dwelt, were colonised by Franks, 1 ' Tuo, Maximiane Auguste, nu- tu, Nervioniui et Treveroruni arva jacentia Lsetus postliminio restitu- tio et rcceptus in leges Fraucua ex- coluit.' Eumen. Taneyyr. Con- stant™ Cas.} c. 21. Guerard, i. 250. The Small Holdings. 285 Chamavi, and Frisians ; and Eumenius,1 in his Pane- C!1U gyric, represented them, as Probus had described the Alamanni, as now tilling the fields they had once plundered, and supplying recruits to the Roman legions. A ' pagus Chamavorum ' existed in the ninth century in this district, and so bore witness to the extent and permanence of this colony of Chamavi2 Similar evidence for the other districts, as we shall have occasion to see hereafter, is possibly to be found in the names of places with a Teutonic termi- nation remaining to this day, though the language spoken is French. A recent German writer, in a sketch of the reign of Diocletian, makes the pregnant remark that when account is taken of all the masses of Germans thus brought into the Eoman provinces, partly as colonists and partly as soldiers, it becomes clear that the northern districts of Gaul were already half German before the Frankish invasion. These German settlers were valuable at the time as tillers of the land, payers of tribute, and as furnishing recruits to the legions ; but in history they were more than this, for they were, partly against their will, the pioneers of the German * Volkerwanderung.'* We have seen that Probus had deported Ala- Alamanni „ . in Britain, manni into Britain in pursuance 01 this continuous 1 Eumen. Paneg. Comtantio, 9. Guerard, i 252. 2 Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme, pp. 582-4, quoting the will of St. Widrad, Abbot of Flavigny in the eighth century : 'In pago Commavorum* 'in pago ' Ammaviorum.'1 In the Notitia I Occidentis, cxl., there is mention of Lceti from this district — Prcefectus Lcetorum Lingonensium. Boeking, p, 120. 3 Kaiser Diocletian und seine Zeit, von Theodor Preuss. Lein zig, 1869 (pp. 54-5). 28G The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. policy. It is curious to observe that when Constan- tius soon after (in a.d. 306) died at York, and Con- stantine was proclaimed Emperor in Britain, one of his supporters was Crocus or Erocus,1 a king of the Alamanni, proving that there were Alamannic soldiers in Britain under their own king — probably, more properly speaking, a sept or clan under its own chief — at that date. But it was not long before both the Alamanni and the Franks again became troublesome in the Rhine valley. Under the year 357, in the history of Ammianus Marcellinus, there is a vivid description of the struggle of Julian to regain from the Alamanni the cities on the Lower Rhine which the latter had occupied, as in the time of Probus, within the Roman province of Lower Germany. After the decisive battle of Strasburg, Julian crossed the Rhine at Mayence and laid waste the country between the Maine and the Rhine, ' plundering the wealthy farms 1 of they.' crops and cattle, and burning to the ground ' all the houses, which latter in that district were built ' in the Roman fashion.'2 He then restored the fortress of Trajan which protected this part of the 1 Limes.' The next year, the Salian Franks having taken possession of Toxandria, on the Scheldt, Julian pounced down upon them and recovered possession, and then set himself ' to restore the fortifications of 1 the cities of the Lower Rhine, and to establish afresh 1 the granaries which had been burned, in which to stow 1 ' Quo [Constantio] mortuo, cunctia qui aderunt adnitentibus, Bed praecipue Eroco Alamannorum p _"•, auxilii gratia Constantium comitate, imperium capit.' Mon. Brit. Excerpta. Ex Sexti Aure- lii Victoria Epitome (p. lxxii.). 2 Ammianus Marcellinus, bk. xvii. c. i. 7. The Small Holdings. 287 * the corn usually imported from Britain.'' x This was c»ap. the occasion on which, according to Zosimus, 800 1 vessels, more than mere boats, were employed in going backwards and forwards bringing over the British corn, thus proving both the extent of British agriculture and the close connexion between Britain and the province of Lower Germany. The aggressions of the Alamanni, however, con- Buceno- tinued, and again we find Ammianus Marcellinus deported describing how, at the close of a campaign, Valen - Jjjj Br" tinian, in a.d. 371, deported into Britain the Buceno- bantes, a tribe of the Alamanni from the east banks of the Ehine, immediately north of Mayence. He made them elect Fraomarius as their chief, and then, giving him the rank of a tribune, sent him with his tribe of Alamannic soldiers to settle in Britain, as probably Crocus or Erocus had been sent before him.2 This policy of planting colonies of German colo- The policy nists — even whole clans under their petty chiefs — in 0ne, and the Belgic provinces and Britain, with the double Sed!D" object of keeping up the supply of corn for the empire and soldiers for the legions, was therefore steadily adhered to for several generations. And a further proof of the extent to which the system was carried turns up later in the numerous co- horts of Lseti mentioned by Ammianus,3 and in the * Notitia,' 4 as having been drawn from these colonies 1 Am. Marc. bk. xviii. c. ii. s. 3. a Id. xxix. c. iv. 7. 3 Id. bk. xx. c. viii. 13. 4 Among the ' Prcefecti Lcsto- rum et Gentilium ' there is mention ot the Prsefectus Lsetorum Teuto- nicianorum, Batavorum, Franco- i~um, Linffonensium, Nerviorum, and Lagensium. Notitia Occ. cxl. Booking, p. 120. See also the valu- able annotation ' De LcBtis.1 Book- ing, 1044 et seq. 288 The Roman Land System. Crap, and placed as garrisons all over Gaul and Germany, VIII but especially on the banks of the Ehine. It has been necessary to dwell upon this subject because it is needful for the present purpose that it should be fully understood that throughout the Ger- man provinces of Rhcetia, the Agri Decumates, Upper and Lower Germany, in Belgic Gaul, and in Britain, there were large numbers of German semi-servile settlers upon the Ager Publicus interspersed among the free coloni and veterans ; and that most of the settlers, whether free coloni, veterans, or keti, were engaged in agriculture. Some of them, no doubt, especially since the encouragement said to have been given by Probus to vine culture, may have occupied vineyards in Southern Gaul, or in the valleys of the Ehine and its tributaries. Lastly, it must also be remembered that there may have been intermixed among the privileged veterans and the overburdened ' laeti,' on the public lands, dwindling remains of original Gallic inhabitants, and other free coloni or tenants, not privileged like the veterans, but subject to the various public burdens. Some of these were scarcely to be distinguished, per- haps, in point of law and right from the owners of villas. They may have been holders of slaves, and have had possibly sometimes even free coloni of their own, though varying very much in the size of their hold- ings, and falling far below the owners of latifundia in social importance. Be this as it may, we shall pre- sently find the free class of landholders, whoever they might be, sinking steadily into a semi-servile condition under the oppression of the Imperial fiscal officers and the burden of the taxation and services The ' Tributum: 289 imposed upon them — the tributum and sordida munera y^J — the oppressive exaction of which during the later empire was forcing them gradually to surrender their freedom, and to seek the shelter of a semi-servile posi- tion under the patrocinium, sometimes of the fiscal officer himself, sometimes of the lord of a neighbour- ing * villa.' VI. THE ' TRIBUTUM ' OF THE LATER EMPIRE. Passing now to the system of taxation and forced services during the later empire, it will be found to be of peculiar importance, not only because of its connexion with the growing manorial tendencies, but also because the taxation resembled so closely the system of ' hidation ' prevalent afterwards in Saxon England, and some of the forced services actually survived in the manorial system. The system of taxation was modified by the Em- peror Diocletian at the very time when the policy of forced colonisation described in the last chapter was being carried out. It was known as the taxation ' juqatione vel eapi- fhej-ugatto J J -* or assess- tatione' — the tribute or stipendium of so much l'or mentby tha jugum every j ugum or caput. or caput. 1 Jugum ' and ' caput ' were names for a hypo- thetically equal, if not always the same, unit of taxation.1 The 'jugum ' was probably originally taken from the area which could be cultivated by the single or double yoke of oxen allotted to the settler, and may 1 Cod. Theod. vii. 6, 3. Per viginti juga sea capita conferant vesietTm . . Id. xi. 16, 6. Pro capitibus seujugis suis. . . 290 The Roman Land System. Ch"'- have been a single or double one accordingly. But VIII. & . . a person holding a fraction of a jugum or caput was said to hold only a '"portio^ 1 and paid, in conse- quence, a proportion only of the burdens assessed upon the whole juguin. Noav, if the taxation had continued at actually so much per yoke of oxen, the system would have been simple enough ; and it would be easy to under- stand how, whilst the jugum represented the unit of taxation for land, the caput might be the unit corre- sponding in value with the jugum, but applying to other kinds of property, such as slaves and cattle, and including the capitation tax levied in respect of wives and children. And this, probably, may be the meaning of the double nomenclature — jugum vel caput. At any rate, we know from the Theodosian Code, that the members of a veteran's family were constituent parts of his ' caput.' 2 The subject is obscure, but the reform of Diocletian seems to have aimed at an equalisation of the taxation according to the value of property. The jugum ij.^- seems to have involved an assessment of became a unit of various kinds of land in hypothetical juga, of the same value (said to be fixed at 2,000 solidi) ; and this involved a variation in the acreage of the hypo- thetical jugum, according to the richness or other- wise of the land, just as according to Flaccus was the case also as regards the actual centurias and allotments. In one instance in which the figures have been 1 Cod. Theol. zi, 17, 4. 'Universi j nis que ad hsec muma coarctentur.' pro j"i tioiicMia: I'u.-M-Monisjugatio- I 2 Cod. Theod. lib. vii. tit. xx. 4. The ' Tributum: 291 preserved, viz. for Syria, under the Eastern Empire, Chap. the assessment was as follows under the system of Diocletian : 1— t^ied ill illL.A, Of vine-land . . 5 jugera, or 10 pletbra or half-acrea. Arable, first class . 20 „ 40 „ „ Arable, second class 40 „ 80 „ „ Arable, tbird class . 60 „ 120 „ „ In the east, therefore, sixty jugera, or 120 Greek plethra or half-acres, of ordinary arable land, were assessed as ajugum. This instance makes it clear that while originally the actual allotment to a single or double yoke of oxen may have been taken as the basis of taxa- tion, the 'jugum ' had already become a hypothetical unit of assessment, just as, by a similar process, was the case with the English hide. Property had come to be assessed at so many jug a under the jugation, without any attempt to make the assessment accord with the actual number of yokes employed. The assessment was revised every fifteen years at what was called the Indiction.2 We have seen that the nominal acreage of the typical holding assigned to the single yoke of two oxen under Eoman law on the Continent resembled very closely that of the Saxon yard-land, which also had two oxen allotted with it.3 The In- diction. 1 See Syrisch-Romisches Itechts- buch aus dem Fun/ten Jahrhundert (Bruns und Sacban), Leipzig, 1880, p. 37; and M arquardt's Staatsver- waltuwj, ii. 220. See also Hy- ginus, De Limitibus Constituendis, Lacbmaun, &c, p. 205, wbere there is mention of ' arvum primum, se- cundum,1 &c, in Pannonia. 2 Marquardt, ii. 237. 3 Not that the Roman jugerum was equal in area to the Saxon acre. It was much smaller, and of quite a different shape, at least in Italy. 2 292 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. Analogy of ihejuffiim and cen- turia to the yard- land and bide. We have also seen that the twenty-five or thirty jugera of the single yoke were probably fixed as an eighth of the Eoman centuria^ as the yard-land was the eighth of a double hide. The common acreage of the centuria was, as we have seen, 200 or 240 jugera. The latter number may be the simple result of the use of the long hundred of 120 ; or it may have resulted, as suggested above, from the necessity of making the centuria of the free citizen's typical estate divisible into four double holdings of 60 acres, or eight single holdings of 30 acres each. Be this as it may, the centuria, or typical estate of a free citizen in a regularly constructed Eoman colony, seems to have stood to the single or double holding of the common and often semi-servile settler in the same arithmetical relation as the Saxon larger hide of 240 acres did to the yard-land.1 We have, then, two kinds of holdings : — 1. The one or more centuriod embraced in the The acreage of the jugum no doubt varied very much, as did also the acreage of the yard-land. 1 It is even possible and pro- bable that the Gallic coinage in Roman times, mentioned in the Pauca de Mensuris (Lachmann and Rudorff, p. 373), ' Juxta Gallos vigesima pars unciae denarius est . . . duodecies unciae libram xx. solidos continentem efficiunt, sed veteres solidum qui nunc aureus dici- tur nuncupabant,' — the division of the pound of silver into 12 ounces, and these into 20 pennyweights — with which we found the Welsh tunc pound to be connected, may also have had something to do with the contents of the centuria and jugum. At all events, the division of the pound into 240 pence was very con- veniently arranged for the division of a tax imposed upon holdings of 240 acres, or 1 20 acres, or 60 acres, or 30 acres, or the 10 acres in each field. In other words, the coinage and the land divisions were remark- ably pur (did in their arrangement, as we found was also the case with the scutage of the Hundred Rolls, and the scatt penny of the villani in the Boldon Book. TJie ' Tributum: 293 latifimdia or villas of the large landowners, which, <*!**• however, when tilled by their coloni, and not by slaves, might well be subdivided into holdings of sixty or thirty acres each. 2. The double and single holdings of the smaller settlers on the ' ager publicus ' of fifty or sixty and twenty-five or thirty acres each. And we may conclude that the system of taxation called the ' jugatio'' was founded upon these facts, though in order to equalise its burden the assessment of an estate or a territory in juga became, under Diocletian, a hypothetical assessment, corresponding no longer with the actual number of yokes, just as the Saxon hide ad geldam, at the date of the Domesday Survey, no longer corresponded with the actual caru- cate ad arandum. Another resemblance between the Eoman juga- tion and the Saxon hidage was to be found in the method adopted when it became needful to reduce the taxation of a district. Thus, the land of the iEdui had been ravaged and depopulated. It had paid the tributum on 32,000 juga ; 7,000 juga were released from taxa- tion. In future it was assessed at 25,000 juga only ; and so relief was granted.1 Further, as the English manorial lord paid the ihetriim- hidage for the whole manor, so the lord of the villa, by"th^ld under Eoman law, paid the tributum not only for his ^ v}° ' r » claimed own demesne land, but also for the land of his coloni tribute and tenants. Just as the servile tenants of a Saxon tenants, or thane were called his ' gafol gelders,' so the semi- *" tanu 1 Eumenius, Pan. Constantini, Marquardt, S. V., ii. 222. 294 The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. CoJoni and tributarii in Britain. The Ro- man ' tri - Lutum' and the Saxon ' gafol.' servile tenants of a Eoman lord were called his tributarii. In both cases they paid their tribute to their lord, whilst the lord paid the imperial tributum for himself and for them.1 In a decree of the year 319, issued by Constan- tine to the ' Vicar of Britain,' words are used which prove that there were coloni and tributarii 2 on British estates.3 Putting all these things together, the analogy between the Roman ' jugation ' and the later English hidage can hardly be regarded as accidental. But to return, at present, to the tribute and the service due from each jugum or caput. The tribute was generally paid part in money and part in produce, and was, in fact, a tax. It was a separate thing from the tithe of produce, ren- dered as rent to the State on the tithe-lands of the Agri decumates and of Sicily, though all these various annual payments in produce may have been confused together under the term annonce. The tribute proper survived probably, as we shall see, in the later manorial ' gafol.' The tithe, or other proportion taken as rent — for the proportion was not always a tenth 4 — more nearly resembled the manorial ' gafol-yrth. » Cod. Theod. lib. xi. tit.i. 14. 2 See also Ammianus. xxvii. 8, 7. Coote, 131. 3 Cod, Theod. lib. xi. tit. vii. 2. Idem A ad Pacatianum Vicarium Britanniarum. Unusquisque de- curio pro ea portione conveniatur, in qua vel ipse vel colonus vel tri- butariue ejus convenitur et collijrit ; neque onniino pro alio decurione vel territorio conveniatur. Id enim prohibitum esse manifestum est et observandum deinceps, quo[d] juxta hanc nostram provisionem nullus pro alio patiatur injuriam. Dat. xii. Kal. Dec. Constantino A. et Licinio 0. Coss. (319). 4 Hyginus. Lachmann, &c, L 205. The ' Sordida Munera* 295 But we are not quite ready yet to trace the actual connexion between these Eoman and later manorial payments. ClTAP. VIII. VII. THE ' SORDIDA MUNERA ' OF THE LATER EMPIRE. In addition to the payments in kind or rents in The produce, called annonce, there were other personal munera. services demanded from settlers in the provinces. They were called 'sordida munera,'' and strangely resembled the base services of later manorial tenants. There is a special title of the ' Codex Theodo- sianus ' on the ' base services ' exacted under Eoman law ; ' so that there is evidence of the very best kind as to what they were. By an edict of a.d. 328 there was laid upon the rectores of provinces the duty of fixing the burden of the services according to three grades of holdings 0f t,hree . G grades ol — those of the greater, the middle, and the lowest holdings. class — as well as the obligation of seeing that the services were not exacted at unreasonable times, as during the collection of crops. Further, the rectores were also ordered to record with their own hand ' what is the service and how to be performed for ' every " caput" [or jugum], whether so many angaries ' or so many operce, and in what way they are to be * rendered for each of the three grades of holdings.'2 1 Cod. Theod. lib. xi. tit. xvi De Extraordinariis sive Sordidis Muneribics. See also Godefroy's notes. 2 Lib. xi. t. xvi. 4. ' Ea forma servata, ut prirno a potioribus, dein- de a mediocribus atque infiniis, quae sunt danda, preestentur.' ' Manu autem sua rectores scribere debe- bunt, quid opus sit, et in qua ne- cessitate, per singula capita, vel quantse angarise vel quantse operse, 296 The Roman Land System. Chap. Certain privileged classes were specially exempted '- from these ' base services,' and it happens that edicts expressly mentioning Rhoetia specify from what ser- vices they shall be exempt, and so reveal in detail what the services were. The province of Rhastia lay to the south of the Eoman Limes, and east of the ' Agri decumates ' of Tacitus, whilst also extending into the Alpine valleys of the present Graubunden. The chief city in North Rhsetia, of which we speak (Vindelicia), was Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), and Tacitus de- scribes the German tribes of the Hermunduri, north of the Limes, as engaged in friendly commerce with the Romans, and as having perfectly free access not only to the city, but also to the Roman villas around it.1 what they We have seen that in this district south of the were in Rhaeiia. Danube, and in the Agri decumates between the Danube and the Rhine, there were large numbers of German as well as Roman settlers, occupying land probably as free ' coloni ' and ' keti,' paying tribute to the State, in addition to the usual tenth of the produce and personal services, according to their grades of holding Edicts of a.d. 382 and 390 2 represent the tenants and settlers in this Roman pro- vince as liable with others to render, in addition to the tithe of the produce in corn, &c. {annonos), inter alia, the following ' base services ' {sordida munera), viz. : — M'\ quae aut in quanto modo prse- I fimos observando.' bendte sint, ut recngnovisse se ecri bant; cxaclionis, nraedicto ordine Inter ditiorea, niediocres, atque in- 1 Qermania, xli. 2 Cod. Thcod. xi. ] 6, and 13. The ' Sordida Munera* 297 (1) The ' cur a pollinis conjiciendi, e.xcoctio panis, and obsequium pistrini,' i.e. the preparation of flour, making of bread, and service at the bakehouse. The supply of so many loaves of bread is a very common item of the later manorial services every- where. (2) The prcebitio paraveredorum et parangaria- rum. These also were services found surviving, in fact and in name, amongst the later manorial ser- vices. The angaria l and the veredi 2 were carry- ing services, with waggons and oxen or with pack- horses, on the main public Eoman roads. The parangaria? and paraveredi were extra carrying services off the main road. There is a special title of the Codex Theodosianus ' De Cursu Publico, An- gariis et ParangariisS 3 in which, by various edicts, abuses are checked and the services restrained within reasonable limits, both as to the weight to be carried and the number of oxen or horses required. Carrying services also are familiar in manorial records under the name of ' averagium.' In the Hundred Rolls and the Cartularies, and in the Domesday Survey, they occur again and again ; and in the Anglo-Saxon version of the * RectitudinesJ in describing the services of the ' geneat' or ' villanns,* the Latin words ' equitare vel averiare et summagiura Ctt*p. VIII. Supply of bread. 1 From angarius = ayyapos, a messenger or courier. The word is probably of Persian origin. ' Nothing mortal travels so fast as tbese Persian messengers. The entire plan is a Persian invention. . . The Persians give the riding post the name of " angarum." ' — Hero- dotus, bk. viii. 98. See also the Cyropa-dia, bk. viii. c. 17, where the origin of the post- horse system is ascribed to Cyrus. 2 From the Latin veredus, a post-horse. 8 Cod. Thend. lib. viii. t. v. 29S The Roman Land System. Chap. VIII. Various opera. ducere,' are rendered ' riiban -] auejiian *j lafce taban.' Also, in the record of the services of the Tidenham 1 geneats ' the words run, ' ridan, and averian, and lade ' losdan, drafe drifan,' &C.1 At the same time, on the Continent the word * angaria? ' became so general a manorial phrase as to be almost equivalent to ' villein services ' of all kinds.2 The carrying and post-horse services, more strictly included in the manorial angaria? and averagium^ extended over Britain, Gaul, and the German pro- vinces. (3) The * obsequia operarum et artificum diver- sorum' — the doing all sorts of services and labour when required — like the Saxon ' boon-work,' which formed so constant a feature of manorial services in addition to the gafol and regular week-work. How could the words be better translated than in the Anglo-Saxon of the Tidenham record — ' and sela odra 1 The ' veredus ' or post-horse, from which the paraveredus or extra post-horse, sometimes par- hippus (all these words occur in the Codex Justin, xii. 1. [li.], 2 and 4, De Cursu Publico), may have been equivalent to the later ' averius' or ' aff'rus ' by which the averagium was performed. Cf. ' Parhippus vel Avertarius ' (Cod. Theod. VIII. v. xxii.) and see Id. xlvii., 1 avertarius = a horse carrying 'averta' or saddlebags. Hence, perhaps, the base Latin avera, averiee, averii, affri, beasts of burden, oxen, or farm horses, and the verb ' averiare ' (Saxon of 10th century ' averian,)) and lastly the noun 'averagium' for the service. See also the Gallic Ep-v- redice (men of the horse-course) mentioned by Pliny iii. 21 (Dr. Guest's Originea Celtica, i. 381), and compare this word with para- veredi. In modern Welsh ' Rhed ' = a running, a course. 2 Compare the careful para- graphs on these words in M. Guerard's Introduction to the Po- lyptique de VAbbe Irminon, pp. 793 et seq. The sense of the word as implying a compulsory service is shown in the Vulgate of Matt. v. 4 : ' Et quicunque te angariaverit mille passus: vade cum illo et alia duo.' The same word is used in Matt. xxvii. 32, and Mark xv., where Simon ia compelled to bear the cross. The ' Sordida Munera: 299 J?ingad6n,' ' and shall do other things] qualified by the Chap. previous words, ' swa him man byt,' ' as he is bid ' ? * '. (4) The ' obsequium coquenda? calcis ' — lime-burn- Lime ing. This was one of the specially mentioned ser- burnine- vices of the servi of the Church in Frankish times, under the Bavarian laws, in this very district of Ehsetia, as we shall see by-and-by. (5) The prosbitio materia?, lignorum, et tabulorum ; Building, 77. 7 7 . 7 &c, and eura puoLicarum vet sacrarum osdium construend- support of arum atque reparandarum ; cur a Itospitalium domo- ™&T0& 3 rum et viarum et pontium ' — the supply of material, bridee8- wood, and boarding for building, repairing, or con- structing public and sacred buildings, and the keeping up of inns, roads, and bridges. Here we have two out of the ' three needs ' marking in England the higher service of the Saxon thane. Such were the chief c sordida munera ' of the settlers in Ehastia and other Eoman provinces. But servile as they were, and like as they were to the later manorial services, we must not therefore con- clude that the settlers from whom they were due — whether German or Eoman, in Eomano- German pro- vinces— were under Eoman law necessarily serfs. They were, as we have said, ' free coloni ' or ' lasti,' and below them were the ' servi.' The three grades in which they were classed, ' ditiores, mediocres, atque injimij marked gradations of wealth, — probably ac- cording to the number of yokes of oxen held, or the size of their holdings — not necessarily degrees of freedom.2 1 Supra, p. 154. I ' servi fisci? See Decretio C/tlo- 2 There were probably servi on tharii regis, a.d. 511, 65S. Man. the ' ager publicus ' as there were Germ. Hist. Legum Sectio, ii. p. 6. on the Frankish public lands, called | 300 The Roman Land System, Chap. VIII. The Im- perial mili- tary and fiscal officers. nil. THE TENDENCY TOWARDS A MANORIAL MANAGE- MENT OF THE 'AGER PUBLICUS,' OR IMPERIAL DOMAIN. Having now examined into the character of the holdings, tribute, and * sordida mimera ' of the tenants on what may be called the great provincial manor of the Eoman emperor, it may perhaps be pos- sible to trace some steps in the process by which these tenants became in some districts practically serfs on the royal villas or manors of the Teutonic conquerors of the provinces. The beginning of the process can be traced appa- rently at work during the later empire. The German and Gallic provinces had for long been considered as in an especial sense Imperial pro- vinces, and their ' ager publicus ' and tithe-lands had become regarded to a great extent as the personal domain of the emperors. They were under the personal control of his imperial procuratores, or agents.1 In fact there had grown up strictly imperial classes of military and fiscal officers with local juris- diction over larger or smaller areas. There were the ' duces,' or ' magistri militum,' and ' comites,' and * vicarii,' 2 whilst in the lowest rank of ' procuratores,' possibly controlling smaller fiscal districts or sub- 1 Compare Dr. J. N. Madvig's JHe Verfasmng und Verwaltung (Jph Romisehen Staates (Leipzig, 1882), ii. p. 408. 9 Madvig, ii. p. 573 ; and Cod. Just. xii. 8-14, and Cod. Theod. xii. i. 38. See also the Notitia Dignitntum, passim. Manorial Tendencies. 301 districts, were the ' ducenarii' and ' centenarii.n They C"A,>- , VIII. seem to have combined military, and judicial, and fiscal duties with functions belonging to a local police. Whatever at first the exact position and autho rity of these military and fiscal officers of the Emperor may have been, there is evidence that they easily assumed a kind of manorial lordship over the portion of the public domains under their charge in two distinct ways. In the first place, the ' villa ' in which a mili- Were aPfc tary or fiscal officer lived was the fiscal centre of a sort of his district. He was the 'villicus' by whom the their du-in ' annonse,' tribute, and ' sordida munera ' were exacted. toct# In some instances the services seem to have been ren- dered in the form of work on his ' villa,' or on the villas of ' conductores,' by whom the special products of some districts were sometimes farmed.2 And there are passages in the Codes which complain of the tendency in these Imperial officers of higher and lower rank to oppress those under their jurisdiction, even sometimes using their services on their own estates, and thus arrogating to themselves almost the position of manorial lords, whilst reducing their fiscal dependants to the position of semi-servile tenants.3 1 With regard to the procura- tores, ducenarii, and centenarii see Madvig, ii. p. 411. See also Cod. Just., xii. 20 (De agentibus in rebus), where a certain ' magister officiorum ' is forbidden to have under him more than 48 ducenarii and 200 centenarii. Also Cod. Just., xii. 23 (24). Mr. Coote (Romans in England, p. 317 et seq.), identifies the ' centenarii ' with the ' stationarii,' or police of the later provincial rule. Com- pare this with the distinctly police duties of the ' centenarii ' of the « Becret.io Clotharti' (a.d. 611-558), Man. Germ. Hist. — Oapitularia, p. 7. 8 Madvig, ii. 432, and the authorities there quoted. 3 Ccd. Theod., xi. tit. 11. L ' Si quis eorum qui provinciarum Rectoribus exequuntur, quique in 302 The Roman Land System. CCAP. VIII. Take per- sons and villages under their patro- cinium. Iii the second place, the practice also was com- plained of by which the fiscal officers, using their in- fluence unduly, induced tenants on the public lands of their district, and sometimes even whole villages, to place themselves under their ' patrocinium,' thereby practically converting themselves into semi-servile tenants of a mesne lord who stood between them and the emperor.1 The question would be well worth a more careful consideration than can be given here how far these tendencies towards the gradual establishment under diversis agunt olHciis principalis, et qui sub quocurnque prsetextu luuneris publici possunt esse terri- biles, rusticano cuipiam necessita- tem obsequii, quasi mancipio sui juris, hnponat, aut servurn ejus aut bovem in usus proprios necessitatis- que converterit. . . ultimo subjugatur exitio.' Quoting the above Le- huerou observes: — 'Les dues, les cointes, les recteurs des provinces, institues pour resister aux puis- sants et aux forts, n'userent plus de l'autorite' de leur charge que pour se rendre redoutables aux petits et aux faibles, et se firent un hon- teux revenue de la terreur qu'ila r^pandaient autour d'eux. Us en- levaient sans scrupule, tantot le boeuf, tantot l'esclave du pauvre, et quelquefois le malheureux lui-meme avec sa femnie et ses enfants, pour les employer tous ensemble a la culture de \eurs villce' (p. 140). See also Cod. Theod. viii. t. v. 7 and 15. 1 Cod. Theod., xi. tit. 24, De Pa- tmciniis vicorum. ' Quicumque ex tuo oiliciu, vel ex quocurnque ho- niinum ordine, vicus in suum detecti fuerint patrocinium suscepisse, con- stitutas luent pcenas. . . . Quos- cumque autem vicos aut defensionis potentia, aut multitudine sua fretos, publicis muneribus constiterit ob- viari, ultioni quam ratio ipsa dicta- bit, conveniet subjugari.' ' Censemus ut qui rusticis pa- trocinia praebere temptaverit, cu- juslibet ille fuerit dignitatis, sive MAGISTRI TJTRITJSO.UE MILITIA, sive comitis, sive ex pro-consulibus, vel vicariis, vel augustalibus, vel tri- bunis (C. J. xii. 17, 2), sive ex ordine curiali, vel cujuslibet alterius dignitatis, quadraginta librarian auri se sciat dispendium pro singu- lorum fundorum prsebito patroci- nio subiturum, nisi ab hac postea temeritate discesserit. Omnes ergo sciant, non modo eos memorata multa l'erendos, qui clientelam sus- ceperint rusticorum, sed eos quoque qui fraudandorum tributorum causa ad patrocinia solita fraude confuge- rint, duplum defiuitLB multse dispen- dium subituros.' ^Dat. vi. Id. Mart. Constantinop., Theodoro v. c. Coss. 39iJ). See also Lehuerou, p. 13G 139, and Cod. Just., xi. 54. Manorial Tendencies. 303 the later empire of a manorial relation between the Chap. 'coloni ' and ' laeti ' on the crown lands, and the fiscal VLLL officer of the district in which they lived, were the beginnings of a process which ended in the division of the crown lands practically into ' villas,' or districts appendant to the villa of the fiscal officer, which in their turn may have been the prototypes of the villas or manors on the ' terra regis ' of Frankish and Saxon kings.1 As we have said, the use of the word ' villa ' Frankish :n the Salic laws and early capitularies, for the Regis** smallest general territorial unit as well as for the f^vuics v villa ' of a private lord, would thus perhaps be most or Manor»- easily accounted for. And possibly the continuity which such a result would indicate between Roman and Frankish institutions might, after all, be confirmed by the seeming continuity, in name at least, between the fiscal officers of the later empire and those of the Salic and Ripuarian, and other early barbarian codes. The appearance of the dux and the comes and the centenarius in these codes, and in the early capitularies, as the military, fiscal and judicial officers of the Frank- ish kings, is at least suggestive of continuity in fiscal and judicial arrangements, though of course it does not follow that many German elements may not have been directly imported into institutions which, even under the later Roman rule in the Romano-German provinces, already indirectly and to some extent were 1 Madvig, ii. 432. ' Wie lange die Ackersleute auf den Kaiser- :ichenGrundstiicken {Coloni Ccesaris Dig. vi. 6, s. 11, i. 19, 3) erne grossere personliche Freiheit be- wahrten, und seit welcher Zeit das spiitere Kolonatsverhaltniss gait, lasst sich nicht bestimmen, da der Uebergaug schrittweise vor sich ging.' 304 The Roman Land System. chap, no doubt the compound product of both Eoman and 1 German ingredients.1 The settlement of these difficult points perhaps belongs to constitutional rather than to economic history. The pro- Having noticed the evident tendencies of the fiscal oommen- district of the later empire to approach the manorial dation tvpe, and to become a crown villa or manor with commenced J r ' under dependent holdings upon it, we must pass on to rule. a further important effect of the oppression of the imperial officers. We have noticed the edicts intended to prevent the tenants on the imperial domain from putting themselves under their direct ' patrocinium.' These edicts did not prevent the over- burdened and oppressed tenant from putting himself under the ' patrocinium ' of the lord of a neighbour- ing villa, thereby becoming his semi-servile tenant, in order to escape from the cruel exactions of the tax- gatherer. This process was called ' commendation,' and it was carried out on a remarkable scale. It consisted in the surrender by the smaller tenants on the public lands of themselves and their property to some richer landowner ; so parting with their inheritance and their freedom whilst receiving back a mere occu* pation of their holding by way of usufruct only as a * prcecarium,' or for life, as a servile tenement, paying 1 In the Ripuarian Laws, tit li. (53) ' Grafio ' = 'comes ' = 'judex Jl- scahs,' and the mallus was sometimes held 'ante centenarium vel coini- tem, seu ante Ducem Patricium vel Regem,' tit. 1. (52). So in the Salic Laivs, tit. lxxv. ' debet judex, hoc est, comes aut grafio} &c, but this occurs in one of the additions to the ' Lex Antiqua! Compare the ' cen- tenarius ' in his relation to his superior, the ' comes,' and in his positiou of 'judex' in the mallus with the •' centenarius ' under Cod. Just., vii. 20, 4. Manorial Tendencies. 305 to their lord the fixed census or ' gafol ' of the servile Caw. & VIII. tenant. By this process they rapidly swelled the number ^nd 80 , ^ r j r j ^ hastened of servile tenants on villas of the manorial type, and on ma- hastened the growing prevalence of the manorial tendencies system.1 This process of commendation was nothing new. Commen- r § o d.ition It was an old tribal practice at work long before very Roman times in Gaul, and destined not only to outlast the Roman rule, but also to receive a fresh impulse afterwards from the German invasions. And as its progress can be traced step by step from Roman times, through the period of conquest into the times of settled Frankish rule, and its history is closely mixed up with the history of the growth of the Roman villa into the mediasval manor, and with the change of the ' sordida munera ' from public burdens into manorial services, it presents useful stepping- stones over a gulf not otherwise to be easily crossed with security. Csesar describes how in Gaul, even before the Cssar. Roman conquest, the free tribesmen, overburdened toV^over- by the exactions of chieftains and the tributes imposed JJj' upon them (probably by way of ' gwestva ' or food- escaPe rents), surrendered their freedom, and became little opprtssioi more than ' servi ' of the chiefs. And so far had this practice proceeded that he describes the people of Gaul as practically divided into two classes — the chiefs, whom he likened to the Roman ' equites ; ' 1 M. Lehuerou observes, ' II y a deja des seigneurs, cache's encore sous l'ancienne et familiere denomi- nation de patrons. Cela est si vrai que, non settlement la cho.se, inais le mot se trouve dans Libanius : — n.ept ru>v TT])0(TTafjiQ>v (ten K&fiat fif- yakai, 7ro\Xc5i' ikurum. Textus Legis primus. tatem fecerit, sicut superius dictum 1. 'Ut si quis liber persona 318 The Roman Land System. Chap. Who are the people thus permitted to surrender L their possessions to the Church ? Clearly they are the free possessores or tenants on the public lands, now become ' terra regis,' under the fiscal officers who are still called duces and comites. Here, then, is still going on, but in the interest of the Church, precisely the process described by Sal- vian, and with precisely the same results. Further, these results can be traced with remark- able exactness ; for in the charters of St. Gall and Lorsch and Wizenburg there are numerous instances of surrenders made under this law. instances ln the ' Urkundenbuch ' of the Abbey of St. Gall, tier in the under date a.d. 754,1 there is a charter by which a possessor of land in certain ' villas ' in the neighbour- hood of St. Gall hands over to the monastery all that lie possesses therein, with the cattle, slaves, houses, fields, woods, waters, &c, thereon, together with two servi and all their belongings ; and (it proceeds) ' for these things I am willing to render service every 1 year as follows : — viz. xxx. seglas of beer (cervesa), ' xl. loaves and a sound spring pig (frischenga), and 'xxx. mannas, and to plough 2 jugera2 (jochos) per St. Gall iharters. roluerit et dederit res suae ad ec- olesiam pro redemptione animse suae, licentiam habeat de portione sua, postquam cum filiis suis par- tivit. Nullus eum prohibeat, non rex, non dux, nee ulla persona ha- beat potestatem prohibendi ei. Et quicquid donaverit, villas, terras, mancipia, vel aliqua pecunia, om- nia qusecumque donaverit pro re- demptione animse suae, hoc per ^pistolam confirmet propria manu sua ipse. . . . ' Et post haec nullam habeat po- testatein nee ipse nee posteri ejus, nisi defensor ecclesiee ipsius bene- ficium praestare voluerit ei.' — Pertz, Legum, t. iii. pp. 269-70. 1 Urkundenbuch der Abtei St. G alien, i. p. 22. 2 Compare with the Kentish ' yokes ' and ' ioclets.' The yoke here is, however, evidently the juger, not ihe jugum. Growth of the Manor. 319 * annum, and to gather and carry the produce to Chap. 1 the yard, also to do post service (angaria) when 1 * required.' Here we have not only the public tributum con- verted into a manorial census or ' gafol,' but also the sordida munera transformed into manorial services. In another charter, a.d. 759, is a surrender of all a man's possessions in the place called Heidolviswilare, to the Abbey, ' in this wise that I may receive it back * from you per precariam, and yearly I will pay * thence census, i.e. xxx. siclas of beer, xl. loaves, * a sound spring frisginga, 3 day-works (operas) of 4 one man in the course of the year ; and my son * Hacco, if he survive me, shall do so during his life.'1 In another, a.d. 761,2 the monks of St. Gall re- grant a ' villa ' called ' Zozinvilare ' to the original maker of the surrender at the following census, viz. xxx. siclas of beer and xl. loaves, a friscinga, and two hens, with this addition — 'In guisqua sicione3 ' thou shalt plough saigata una (one selion ?) and 4 reap this and carry it into [the yard], and in one 4 day (jurno) 4 thou shalt cut it, and in another gather 4 it and carry it, as aforesaid.' In the surrender of a holding ' in villa qui dicitur 4 Wicohaim,5 the census is . . . siclas of beer, xx. 4 maldra of bread and a frisginga, and work at the 4 stated time at harvest and at hay-time, two days in 4 reaping the harvest and cutting the hay, and in ' early spring one "jurnalis" at ploughing, and in 4 the month of June to break up [brachan] another, 1 Urhundenbuch, pp. 27-8. 8 Id. p. 33. 3 See also id. pp. 76 and 90. 4 Hence ' jurnal' for acre 8 Id. p. 41. 320 The Roman Land System. Chap. < and in autumn to plough and sow it — this is the VIII. . * census for that villa.' Like those These grants were clearly surrenders by freemen described ° J. ... bjSaivian. like those described by Salvian, which carried witli them whatever coloni or servi there were upon the land Thus, under date 77 1,1 a priest gives to the monks all his property in villa Ailingas and another place, except two servi and five yokes of land ; and in another place he gives ' servum unum cum hoba 1 sua et jiliis suis et cum uxore sua.'' The hoba was clearly the ' hub ' or yard-land of the serf, and it, he and his wife and children were all granted over by their lord to the abbey. In the same year 771 2 a man named Chunibertus and his wife surrendered an estate called Chunibertes- wilari, and it is described as including just what a Roman villa would include, i.e. the villa itself (casa), surrounded by its court [curte circumclausa), together with buildings, slaves, arable land, meadows, fields, &c, &c. And yet in this case also he retains posses- sion ' sub usu fructuario ' during his life, paying the same kind of census as in the other cases — xx. siclas of beer, a maldra of bread, and a frisking. Likeness Now, it will at once be seen how like is the census 6 and described in these charters to the Saxon gafol of the ' Rectitudines,' and of the manors of Tidenham or Ilysseburne. There is distinctly the qafoL and in and 'gafol- J " *> » ■ yrth.* many cases the gafolyrth also, but no mention of the week-work. Add this, and there would be an almost exact likeness to Saxon serfdom. But it will be remembered that even under the census services to the Saxon Urkundenbuch , p. 59. * Id. p. GO. Growth of the Manor. 321 laws of Ine the week-work was not added to the uafol Chap. Y I 1 1 unless the lord provided not only the yard-land, but also the homestead. These surrenders were sur- renders by freemen of their own land and home- steads. It was hardly likely that the more servile week-work should be added to their census. How it would fare with their children when they sought to succeed their parents in the now servile holding is quite another thing. There is, indeed, apparently an instance, under Now serf date 787,1 of the settlement of a new serf — the and«week grant of a fresh holding in villenage from the Abbot JJjjJ^ of St. Gall to the new tenant. The holding, if we may use the Saxon terms, is ' set ' both ' to gafol and to week-work ;' for the tenant binds himself (1) to pay to the abbey as census [i.e. as gafol) yearly vii. maldra of grain and a sound spring frisking, to be de- livered at the granary of the monastery ; and (2) to plough every week {i.e. as week-work)2 at their nearest manor [curtem) a 'jurnal '(or acre strip) in every zelga 3 (i.e. in each of the three fields) ; and also six days in a year when work out of doors is needed, whether in harvest or hay-mowing, to send two ' mancipii ' for the work : also, when work is wanted in building or repairing bridges, to send one man with food to the work, who is to stop at it as long as required. And to these payments and services the new tenant bound * himself, his heirs, and all their descendants lawfully * begotten.' 1 Urkundenbuch, p. 106. 2 ' Et ad proximani curtem ves- tram in unaquaque zelga ebdome- darii jurnalein arare debeanius " (p. 107). 3 Waitz speaks of the three groat fields under the ' Dreifelder- ivirthschaft ' as ' Zelgen.' — Ver- faSHung der Deulschen I'iilkcr, i. 120. And see infra, chap. x. s. iii. 32*2 77/t' Roman Land System. Chap. This surely is a distinct case of the settlement of V T T F 1 a new serf upon the land, rendering in Saxon phrase both gafol and week-work ; and the serfdom created is as nearly as possible identical with that of an English manor of the same date. Surrender gut t0 rej-urn to the surrenders. It is clear from oi whole villus or the instances quoted that some of these owners who of holdings on villas, surrendered their holdings were holders of whole villas or heims, some of them of portions of villas or helms. And yet they placed themselves by the surrender, as Salvian described it, in a servile position, lower, as he says, than that of the colonl of the rich, for they merely retained the usufruct during their life. The inherit- ance was lost. And they still had a tribute to pay to their lord, though free from tribute to the public purse. The Frankish kings now stood in the place of the Eoman Emperor. The old Eoman tributum apparently remained, but was payable to the Frankish king. When under the Alamannic laws these sur- renders were made to the Church, the tribute also was transferred from the king to the Church. We have seen that when such a surrender had been made under Eoman rule to a rich Eoman land- owner, the latter became responsible to the public ex- chequer for the tributum, but he exacted tribute in his turn from his tenant, who thus, as Salvian said, though parting with his inheritance, still paid tribute to his lord. But this tribute can hardly have been the full tributum at which the holding was assessed to the jugatio. It seems to have been rather a fixed and typical gafol or census, marking a servile con- dition. For in the Alamannic laws there are clauses making the following remarkable provisions : — Growth of the Manor. 323 Leges Alamannorum Hlotharii ' (A.D. 022). XXII. (1) Servi enitn ecclesise tributa eua legitime reddant, quindecira siclas de cervisa, porco valente [al. porcum valentem] tremisse uno, pane [al. panem] modia dua, pullos quinque, ova viginti. (2) Antilles autem opera in- posita sine neglecto faciant. (3) Servi dirnidiam partem sibi et dirnidiam [al. dimidium] in domi- nico arativum reddant. Et si super hsec est, sicut servi ecclesiastici ita faciant, tres dies sibi et tres in dominico. xxm. De liberis autem ecclesiasticis, quod [al. quos] colonos vocant, omnes sicut coloni regis ita reddant ad ecclesiam. XXII. (1) Let servi of the Church pay their tribute rightly, viz., 16 sichu of heer, with a sound spring pig, oi bread two modia, five fowls, twenty eggs- (2) Let female servi do services required without neglect. (3) Let servi do ploughing, hall for themselves and half in the de- mesne. And if there be other services, let them do as the servi of the Church — three days for themselves and three days in the demesne. XXIII. Concerning the freemen of the Church who are called ' coloni,' let all pay to the Church just as the coloni of the kin mania, xvi. The ' Germania ' of Tacitus, ?,r, homes ; and then the agri are presently divided among Chap. ix. them. This passage, so often and so variously construed and interpreted, is as follows : — ' Agri pro numero cultorum ab universis vicis [or in or per vices] l occupantur, quos mox inter se secundum dignationein partiuntur : facili- tates partiendi camporum spatia praestant. ' Arva per annos mutant, et superest ager : nee enim cum ubertate et amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria conserant et prata separent et hortos rigent : sola terras seges imperatur.' '- It is unfortunate that the first few lines of this passage are made ambiguous by an error in the texts. If the true reading be, as many modern German critics now hold, ' ab universis vicis ' — by all the vici together, or by the whole community in vici — there still must remain the doubt whether the word vicus should not be considered rather as the equivalent of the Welsh trev than of the modern village. The Welsh * trev ' was, as we have seen, a subordinate cluster of scattered households. Tacitus himself probably uses the word in this sense in the passage where he describes the choice of the chiefs, or head men (principes) ' qui jura per pagos vicosque reddunt.'3 The vicus is here evidently a smaller tribal subdivi- sion of the pagus, just as the Welsh trev was of the ' cymwdj and not necessarily a village in the modern sense.4 1 The Bamberg Codex has ' ab universis vicis} and this is followed by Waitz ( Verfassungsgeschichte, Kiel, 1880, i. 145). The Leyden Codex has ' in vicem.' Others ' per vices,' which earlier critics con- sidered to be an error for 'per vicos.' See Wietersheim's Ge- schichte der Vblkenvanderung, with Dahn's notes, i. p. 43. Leipzig, 1880. 8 Germania, xxvi. 3 Id. xii. 4 The Welsh 'trev' and Ger- man 'dorf probably are from the same root. and divided under tri- bal rules. 344 The German Land System. Chap. ix. If, on the other hand, the true reading be * ab Fresh agri universis in, or per, vices or invicem, the meaning pro- session' of bably is that fresh tracts of land (agri) are one after another taken possession of by the tribal community when it moves to a new district or requires more room as its numbers increase. The new agri, the passage goes on to say, are soon divided among the tribesmen or the trevs, ' secundum dignationem,' according to the tribal rules, the great extent of the open country and absence of limits making the division easy, just as it was in the in- stance of Abraham and Lot. In any case it is impossible to suppose that Tacitus meant by the words in vices or invicem, if he used them, that there was any annual shifting of the tribe from one locality to another, for it is obvious that the very next words absolutely exclude the possibility of an annual movement such as that described by Ccesar. ' Arva per annos mutant et super est ager.' They change their arva or ploughed land yearly, i.e., they plough up fresh portions of the ager or grass land every year, and there is always plenty left over (SituHMs wmcn nas never been ploughed.1 Nothing could de- aco-ara- scribe more clearly what is mentioned in the Welsh Hon of J fresh triads as ' co-aration of the waste.' The tribesmen have the. waste their scattered homesteads surrounded by the lesser homesteads of their ' servi.' And the latter join in the co-tillage of such part of the grass land as year by year is chosen for the corn crops, while the cattle wander over the rest. 1 * "A(/er " dictus qui a divisori- bus agroruru relictus est ad pascen- diuii communiter vicinie.' Isodorus, De Ayris. Lachmann and Rudorff, i. p. 869. The l Ger mania ' of Tacitus. 345 Tins seems to have been the simple form of the Chap- ix- open field husbandry of the Germans of Tacitus. And this is sufficient for the present purpose ; for whichever way this passage be read, it does not modify the force of the previous passages, which show how manorial were the lines upon which the German tribal system was moving even in this early and still tribal stage of its economic development, owing chiefly to the possession of serfs by the tribesmen. It gives us further a clear landmark as regards the use by the Germans of the open-field system of ploughing. Tacitus describes a husbandry in the stage of * co-ara- tion of the waste.' It has not yet developed into a fixed three-course rotation of crops, pursued over and over again permanently on the same arable area, as in ' the three-field system ' afterwards so prevalent in Germany and England. These are important points to have gained, but Theten- the most important one is that, notwithstanding the the Ger- strong resemblances between the Welsh and German gyJJ,mun- tribal arrangements, there was this distinct difference w^® between them. The two tribal systems were not wards the working themselves out, so to speak, on the same lines. The Welsh system, in its economic develop- ment, was not directly approaching the manorial arrangement except perhaps on the mensal land of the chiefs. The Welsh tribesmen had as a rule no servile tenants under them. The taeogs were mostly the taeogs of the chiefs, not of the tribesmen. Thus, as we have seen, when the conquest of Wales was completed, the tribesmen of the till then unconquered districts became freeholders under the Prince of Wales, and with no mesne lord over them. The taeogs be- 346 The German Land System. Chap. IX. The Ger- man and Roman elements easily com- bined to make the came taeogs of the Prince of Wales and not of local landowners. So that the manor did not arise. But even in the time of Tacitus the German tribesmen seem to have already become practically manorial lords over their own servi, who were already so nearly in the position of serfs on their estates that Tacitus described them as' like coloni.' The manor — in embryo — was, in fact, already in course of development. The German economic system was, to say the very least, working itself out on lines so nearly parallel to those of the Eoman manorial system that we cannot wonder at the silent ease with which before and after the conquest of Roman provinces, German chieftains became lords of villas and manors. The two systems, Roman and German, may well have easily combined in producing the later manorial system which grew up in the Roman provinces of Gaul and the two Germanies. Were there other kinds of settle- B DOt ^ i mano- rial ? II. THE TRIBAL HOUSEHOLDS OF GERMAN SETTLERS. Now, if we were to rely upon this evidence of Tacitus alone, the conclusion would be inevitable that the German and Roman land-systems were so nearly alike in their tendencies that they naturally and simply joined in producing the manorial system of later times. And there can be little doubt that, speaking broadly, this would be a substantially correct statement of the case. But before we can fairly and finally accept it as such, it is necessary to consider another branch of evidence which has sometimes been understood to point to a kind of settlement not manorial. Tribal Households. 347 The evidence alluded to is that of local names Chap. ix. ending in the remarkable suffix ing or itujas. It is The needful to examine this evidence, notwithstanding its JSca difficult and doubtful nature. It raises a question jjgj upon which the last word has by no means yet been names, spoken, and out of which interesting and important results may eventually spring. The impossibility of arriving, in the present state of the evidence, at a positive conclusion, is no reason why its apparent bearing should not be stated, provided that sugges- tion and hypothesis be not confounded with verified fact. At all events, the inquiry pursued in this essay would be open to the charge of being one-sided if it were not alluded to. The reader of recent literature bearing upon the history of the English conquest of Britain will have been struck by the confidence and skill with which, in the absence of historical, or even, in some cases, traditional evidence, the story of the invasion and occupation of England has been sometimes created out of little more than the combination of physical ?°theyf geography with local names, on the hypothesis that clau local names ending in Hng," or its plural form 'ingas,' ments? represent the original clan settlements of the German conquerors. Writers who rely upon G. L. Von Maurer's theory of the German mark-system have also naturally called attention to local names with this suffix as evidence of settlements on the basis of the free village community as opposed to those of a manorial type. Local names with this suffix, it is hardly needful to say, are found on the Continent as well as in England. 148 The German Land System. Chap. IX. What Ger- mans did Tacitus describe ? Those within the limes. Northern tribes out- side it. How, it may well be asked, does the evidence they afford of clan settlements or free village communities comport with the thoroughly manorial character of the German settlements on the lines described by Tacitus? Now, in order to answer this question, it must first be considered how far the description of Tacitus covers the whole field — whether it refers to the Germans as a whole, or whether only to those tribes who had come within Eoman influences, and so had sooner, perhaps, than the rest, relinquished their earlier tribal habits to follow manorial lines. So far as his description is geographical it is very methodical. (1) There are the Germans within the Roman limes.1 These included the tribes who, following up the conquests of Ariovistus, had settled on the left bank of the Rhine in what was then called the pro- vince of Upper Germany, including the present Elsass and the country round the confluence of the Rhine with the Maine and Moselle. These tribes were the Tribocci, Nemetes and Vangiones.2 Further, there were the tribes or emigrants, many of them German, gradually settling within the limits of the ' Agri Decumates.' Lastly, there were the Batavi and other tribes settled in the province of Lower Germany at the mouths of the Rhine, shading off into Belgic Gaul. (2) There were the Northern tribes outside the Roman province,3 some of them tributary to the 1 Go-mania, xxviii. and xxix. 2 These tribes are mentioned by Caesar as forming part of the army of Ariovistus. De Bello Gallico, lib. i. c. 61. * Germania, xxx.-xxxvii. Tribal Household*. 349 Romans and some of them hostile, the Frisii, the Cha*. ix. Chatti (or Hessians), and other tribes, reaching from the German Ocean to the mountains, and occupying the country embracing the upper valleys of the Weser and the Elbe, some of which tribes afterwards joined the Franks and Saxons. (3) There were the Suevic tribes 1 so familiar to The Suevh Caesar, and amongst whom were the Angli and Varini, the bor- the Marcomanni and Hermunduri, always hovering ers" over the limes of the provinces from the Rhine and Maine to the Danube : some of them hostile and some of them friendly ; some of whom afterwards mingled with the Franks and Saxons, but most of whom were absorbed in the Alamannic and the Bavarian tribes who finally, following the course of the previous emigration, passed over the limes and settled within the ' Agri Decumates ' in Rhajtia, and in the Roman province of Upper Germany. (4) Behind all these tribes with whom the Romans Distant * / . tribes. came in contact were others vaguely described as lying far away to the north and east. The habits of which of these widely different classes of German tribes did Tacitus describe ? Probably it would not be safe to go further than The Suevio to say that the Germans whose manners he was most ^ost m \^3 likely to describe were those chiefly Suevic tribes ™a1J1y_pro' hovering round the limes of the provinces, especially of the ' Agri Decumates,' with whom the Romans had most to do. It is at least possible that he left out of his picture, on the one hand, those distant northern or eastern tribes who may still have retained their early nomadic habits, and on the other hand those 1 Germania, xxxviii.-xlv. 350 The German Land System. Chap. ix. Germans who had silently and peaceably settled within the limes of the Eoman provinces, and so had become half Eoman.1 But to what class are we to refer the settlements represented by the local names with the supposed patronymic suffix? The previous study of the Welsh and Irish tribal patrony- r J inic local system ought to help us to judge what they were. impiv fixed In the first place we have clearly learned that in tracing the connexion of the tribal system with local names, the fixing of a particular personal name to a locality implies settlement. It implies not only a departure from the old nomadic habits on the part of the whole tribe, but also the absence within the terri- tory of the tribe of those redistributions of the tribes- men among the homesteads — the shifting of families from one homestead to another — which prevailed apparently in Wales and certainly in Ireland to so late a date. Following the parallel experience of the Irish and Welsh tribal system we may certainly conclude that in the early semi-nomadic and shifting tribal stage described by Caasar the names of places, like those of the Irish townlands, would follow local peculiarities of wood or stream or plain, and that not until there was a permanent settlement of particular families in fixed abodes could personal names attach them- selves to places, or suffixes be used which in them- selves involve the idea of a fixed abode. Then with regard to the nature of the tribal settlements which these local names with a patronymic 1 lie regarded the ' Agri Decuniates' as ' hardly in Germany.' Tribal Households. >~>\ suffix may lepresent, surely the actual evidence of Chap. lx. the Welsh laws and the 'Record of Carnarvon,' as to They an what a tribal household was, must be far more likely | to guide us to the truth than any theoretical view of tr/'al, ,, ° g J household. the ' village community ' under the German mark- system, or even actual examples of village communities existing under complex and totally different circum- stances at the present time, valuable as such examples may be as evidence of how the descendants of tribes- men comport themselves after perhaps centuries of settlement on the same ground. Now we have seen that the tribal household in The joint holding of Wales was the joint holding of the heirs of a common a family ancestor from the great-grandfather downwards, with second redistributions within it to make equality, first between cousins- brothers, then between cousins, and finally between second cousins ; the youngest son always retaining the original homestead in these divisions. The Weles, Givelys, and Gavells of the 'Record of Carnarvon ' were late examples of such holdings. They were named after the common ancestor and occupied by his heirs. Such holdings, so soon as there was fixed settlement in the homesteads, were obviously in the economic stage in which, according to German usage, the name of the original holders with the patronymic suffix might well become permanently attached to them.1 We may then, following the Welsh example, fairly The dm- expect the distinctive marks of the tribal household to "°°ngeset be joint holding for two or three generations, and then g^jjjjj^ the ultimate division of the holding among male heirs, homestead. the youngest retaining the original ancestral homestead. 1 This result did not follow in Wales, because in Welsh local i.ames suffixes are not usual. 352 The German Land System. We know how persistently the division among male heirs was adhered to in Wales and in Ireland under the custom of Gavelkind,1 though of the peculiar right of the youngest son to the original homestead we have no clear trace in Ireland. Possibly St. Patrick was strong enough to reverse in this instance a strong tribal custom. But in Wales the succession of the youngest was, as we have seen, so deeply ingrained in the habits of the people that it was observed even among the taeogs. The elder sons received tyddyns of their own in the taeog trev in their father's lifetime, whilst the youngest son remained in his father's tyddyn, and on his death succeeded to it. The persistence in division among heirs and the right of the youngest were very likely therefore to linger as survivals of the tribal household. Now it is well known that in the south-east of England, and especially in Kent, the custom of Gavel- kind has continued to the present day, retaining the division among male heirs and historical traces of the right of the youngest son to the original homestead. In other districts of England and in many parts of Europe and Asia the division among heirs has passed away, but the right of the youngest — Jungsten-Eecht — has survived. Mr. Elton, in his ' Origins of English History,' has carefully described the geographical distribution in Western Europe of the practice, not so much of division among heirs, as of the right of the youngest to Survival of this equal division and the right of the youngest. 1 (Gavelkind may be derived from gabel, a fork or branch, and the word ie used in Ireland as well as in Kent. Irish yabal, yabal-cined (Gavelkind). Manners, §c. of the Ancient Irish. O'Curry, iii. p. 581. Tribal Households. 353 inherit the original homestead, the latter having sur- Chap. ix. vived in many districts where the other has not. In England he finds the right of the youngest in Wales mid S F most prevalent in the south-east counties — in Kent, England - Sussex, and Surrey, in a ring of manors round London, < &ixon and to a less extent in Essex and the East Anglian shore-' kingdom, — i.e. as Mr. Elton describes it, in a district about co-extensive with what in Eoman times was known as the Saxon shore. A few examples occur in Hampshire, and there is a wide district where the right of the youngest survives in Somersetshire, which formed for so long a part of what the Saxons called ' Wealcyn.' l Further, as the custom is found to apply to copy- hold or semi-servile holdings, it would not be an im- possible conjecture that previously existing original tribal households were, at some period, upon con- quest, reduced into serfs, the division of the holdings among heirs being at the same time stopped, so as to keep the holdings in equal ' yokes,' or ' yard-lands,' thus leaving the right of the youngest as the only point of the pre-existing tribal custom permitted to survive. A similar process, perhaps in connexion with the Survival of Frankish conquest of parts of Germany, possibly ofthe had been gone through in many continental districts. Jnutnifeeb Mr. Elton traces the right of the youngest in the Cuntinent- north-east corner of France and in Brabant, in Fries- land, in Westphalia, in Silesia, in Wirtemberg, in the Odenwald and district north of Lake Constance, in Suabia, in Elsass, in the Grisons. It is found also in 1 Origins of English History, pp. 188-9. A A 354 The German Land System. chap. ix. the island of Borneholm, though it seems to be absent in Denmark and on the Scandinavian mainland.1 Attention has been called to this curious survival of the right of the youngest because it forms a possible link between the Welsh, English, and continental systems of settlements in tribal households. We now pass to the more direct consideration of the local names with the supposed patronymic suffix. These peculiar local names are scattered over a wide area ; the suffix varying from the English ing with its plural ' ingas,' the German ing or ung with its plural ingas, ingen, ungen, ungun, and the French ' ign ' or igny, to the Swiss 2 equivalent ikon, the Bohemian ici,3 and the wider Slavonic itz or witz. It seems to be clear that the termination ing, in its older plural form ingas, in Anglo-Saxon, not by any means always,4 but still in a large number of cases, had a patronymic significance. We have the evidence of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle itself that if Baldo were the name of the parent, his children or heirs would in Anglo-Saxon be called Baldings5 (Baldingas). There is also evidence that the oldest historical form of settlement in Bohemian and Slavic districts Wide ex- tension and mean- ing of the patrony- mic suffix 'ing,' &c. 1 Origins of English History, pp. 197-08. - Arnold's Ansiedelungen, p. 89. " Palacky's Geschichte von Boh- men, Pmch ii. c. 6, p. 169. 4 ' Ing ' also meant a low mea- dow by a river bank, as ' Clifton lngsl near York, Sec. Also it was sometimes used like ' ers,' as ' Och- rinyen,' dwellers on the river ' Ohra.' In Denmark the individual strip in a meadow was an ' ing,' and so the whole meadow would be ' the ings.' 5 See Anglo-Saxon Chronicle sub anno 522. ' Cordic was Ele- sing, Klesa was Esling, Esla was Ge wising,' and so on. See also Bede's statement that the Kentish kings were called Oiscings, after their ancestor Oisc. Bede, bk. ii. c. 6. Tribal Households. 355 was in the tribal or joint household — the undivided Ckaf.ix family sometimes for many generations herding to- gether in the same homestead (dediny).1 And the number of local names ending in ici, or owici, changing in later times into itz and witz, taken together with the late prevalence of the undivided household in these semi-Slavonic regions, so far as it goes, confirms the connexion of the patronymic ter- mination with the holding of the co-heirs of an original holder.2 The geographical distribution of local names with the patronymic termination is shown on the same map as that on which were marked the position of the ' hams ' and ' heims.' First, as regards England, the map will show that in Eng. in the distribution of places mentioned in the Domes- day survey ending in ing, the largest proportion occurs east of a line drawn from the Wash to the Isle of Wight : just as in the case of the ' hams,' only that in Sussex the greatest number of ' ings ' occurs instead of in Essex. It is worthy of notice that names ending in ingham or ington are not confined so closely to this district, but are spread much more evenly all over England.3 Further, it will be observed that the counties where the names ending in ing occur without a suffix are re- markably coincident with those where Mr. Elton has found survivals of the right of the youngest, i.e. the old ' Saxon shore.' 1 Palacky, pp. 168-9. Com- pare the word with the Welsh tyddyn, and the Irish fate or tath. 2 See Meitzen's Ausbreitung der A A 2 DeutscJien, p. 17. Jena, 1879. 3 See Taylor's Words and Places, p. 131. 356 The German Land System. In the Moselle valley and round Troyesaud Langres. In Frisia. Chap. ix. Next, as to the opposite coast of Picardy, the ings inPicardy. and hems are alike, for very nearly all the hems in the Survey of the Abbey of St. Bertin of a.d. 850 are pre- ceded by ing, i.e. they are inghems. The proportion was found to be sixty per cent.1 In this north-east corner of France the right of the youngest, as we have seen, also survives. There are also many patronymic names of places in the Moselle valley and in Champagne around Troyes and Langres.2 Next, as to Frisia, eight per cent, of the names mentioned in the Fulda records end in ' inga,' two and a half per cent, in ingaheim, and three per cent, in ing with some other suffix, making thirteen and a half per cent, in all. In Friesland also there are survivals of the right of the youngest. Over North Germany, outside the Eoman limes, the proportion is much less, shading off in the Fulda records from six to three, two, and one per cent. But the greatest proportion occurs within the Eoman limes in the valleys of the Neckar and the Upper Danube, where (according to the Fulda records) it rises to from twenty to twenty-four per cent.,3 shad- ing off to ten per cent, towards the Maine, and in the present Elsass, and to nine per cent, southwards in the neighbourhood of St. Gall.4 In Ger- many most densely in the old Eoman provinces of the'Agri Decu- mates.' 1 It is curious to observe that, taking all the names in the Cartu- lary (including many of later date), only 2 per cent. «nd in ing or ing a, 0 per cent, in inghem or ingahem : making 8 per cent, in all. 2 Taylor's Woi-ds and Places, pp. 4U0 et sey. 3 Out of 119 places named in the charters of the Abbey of Fri- singa earlier in date than a.d. 800, 24 per cent, ended in inge, and only 1 per cent, in heim. — Meichelbeck. passim. 4 In the St. Gall charters, out of 1,920 names, 9 per cent, end in Tribal Households. 357 This chief home of the ' ings ' was the western Chap. ix. part of the district of the 'Agri Decumates ' of Tacitus and the northern province of Rhaatia, gradually oc- cupied by the Alamannic and Bavarian tribes in the later centuries of Roman rule. Whether they entered these districts under cover of the Roman peace, or as conquerors to disturb it, the founders of the 'ings' evidently came from German mountains and forests beyond the limes. North of the Danube names with this suffix extend North of chiefly through the region of the old Hermunduri cMeflyin into the district of Grapfeld and Thuringia, where ^j^1. they were in the Fulda records six per cent. rin£ia- This remarkable geographical distribution in Ger- many suggests important inferences. (1) The attachment of the personal patronymic to They sug- the name of a particular locality implies in Germany EJU* e no less than in Ireland and Wales a permanent settle- ment in that locality, and so far an abandonment 01 nomadic habits and even of the frequent redistribu- tions and shifting of residences within the tribal terri- tory. (2) The occurrence of these patronymic local within names most thickly within the Roman limes and near p^ovSIces, to it, points to the fact that the Roman rule was the outside influence which compelled the abandonment of the semi-nomadic and the adoption of the settled form of life. (3) The addition in some eases — most often in possibly Flanders and in England, which were both Roman inga, 3£ per cent, in inchova. The I are either wilare or wanya ; only most common other terminations | 2 per cent, end in heim. S58 The German Land System. Chap. IX. Offshoots from Sue- vie tribes who be- came Ala- manni. Forced settlement of Ala- manni in Belgic Gaul, provinces — of the suffix ham to the patronymic local name, although most probably a later addition, and possibly the result of conquest, at least reminds us of the possibility already noticed that even a villa or ham or manor, with a servile population upon it, might be the possession of a tribal household, who thus might be the lords of a manorial estate. (4) Considering the geographical distribution of the patronymic termination, beginning in Thuringia and Grapfeld, but becoming most numerous in Rhgetia and the ' Agri Decumates,' it is almost impossible to avoid the inference that it is in most cases connected with settlements in these Roman districts of offshoots from the old Suevic tribe of the Hermunduri — viz. Thuringi, Juthungi, and others who, settling in these districts during Roman rule, became afterwards lost in the later and greater group of the Alamanni. -This inference might possibly be confirmed by the fact that the isolated clusters of names ending in ' ing ' on the west of the Rhine, correspond in many instances with the districts into which we happen to know that forced colonies of families of these and other German tribes had been located after the ter- mination of the Alamannic wars of Probus, Maximian, and Constantius Clorus. These colonies of Iceti were planted, as we have seen, in the valley of the Moselle, and the names of places ending in ' ing ' are numerous there to this day. They were planted in the district of the Tricassi round Troyes and Langres, and here again there are numerous patronymic names. They were planted in the district of the Nervii round Amiens close to the cluster of names ending in ' ing- ahem,' so many of which in the ninth century are Tribal Households. 359 found to belong to the Abbey of St. Bertin. Lastly — Chap. ix. and this is a point of special interest for the present andpos- inquiry — we know that similar deportations of tribes- Sand men of the Alamannic group were repeatedly made into Britain, and thus the question arises whether the places ending in ' ing ' in England may not also mark the sites of peaceable or forced settlements of Germans under Eoman rule. They lie, as we have seen, chiefly within the district of the Saxon shore, i.e. east of a line be- tween the Wash and the Isle of Wight, just as was the case also with the survivals of the right of the youngest. If evidence had happened to have come to hand of a similar deportation of Alamannic Germans into Frisia instead of Frisians into Gaul, the coincidence would be still more complete. The suggestion is very precarious. Still, it might Such be asked, where should clusters of tribal households ments of Germans resembling the Welsh Weles and Gavells "* Sum/ be more likely to perpetuate their character and JjJJJjJ®1'1' resist for a time manorial tendencies than in these slaves. cases of peaceable or forced emigration into Roman provinces ? Who would be more likely to do so than troublesome septs (like that of the Cumberland ' Grames ' in the days of James I.) deported bodily to a strange country, and settled, probably not on private estates, but on previously depopulated public land, without slaves, and without the possibility of acquiring them by making raids upon other tribes ? Now, according to Professor Wilhelm Arnold, the Nofc ,nef?8" ' ° s iniy Aia- German writer who has recently given the closest mannic. attention to these local names, the patronymic suffix 360 The German Land System. Chap. ix. ' ingen ' is one of the distinctive marks of settlements of Alamannic and Bavarian tribes, and denotes that the districts wherein it is found have at some time or another been conquered or occupied by them. The heims, on the other hand, in this writer's view, are in the same way indicative of Frankish settle- ments.1 The view of so accurate and laborious a student must be regarded as of great authority. But the foregoing inquiry has led in both cases to a some- what different suggestion as to their meaning. The suffix heim is Anglo-Saxon as well as Frankish, and translating itself into villa and manor seems to re- present a settlement or estate most often of the manorial type. So that it seems likely, that what- ever German tribes at whatever time came over into the Roman province and usurped the lordship of existing villas, or adopted the Roman villa as the type of their settlements, would probably have called them either weilers or helms according to whether they used the Roman or the German word for the same thing. And in the same way it also seems likely, that whatever tribes, at whatever time, by their own choice or by forced colonisation, settled in house communities of tribesmen with or without a servile population under them, would be passing through the stage in which they might naturally call their settlements or home- 1 Arnold's Amiedelungen unci Wanderungen deutscher Stamme. Marburg, 1881. See pp. 166 et seq. He considers that the Alamanni were a group of German peoples who had settled in the Rhine valley and the Agri Decumates, including among them the Juthungi, who had crossed over from the north of the limes late in the third century. Tribal Households. 361 steads after their own names, using the patronymic Chap. ix. suffix ing. It is undoubtedly difficult to obtain any clear in- dication of the time1 when these settlements may have been made. Nor, perhaps, need they be referred generally to the same period, were it not for the re- markable fact that the personal names prefixed to the suffix in England, Flanders, the Moselle valley, round Troyes and Langres, in the old Agri Decumates (now Wirtemburg), and in the old Khaetia (now Bavaria), and even those in Frisia, were to a very large extent identical. This identity is so striking, that if the names were, The names -. . are not as some have supposed, necessarily clan-names, it might dan names, be impossible to deny that the English and continental Sonaiper districts were peopled actually by branches of the same name8 dans. But it must be admitted that, as the names to 1 In the ErMdrung der Peutin- gei- Tafel, by E. Paulus, Stuttgart, 1866, there is a careful attempt to identify the stations on the Roman roads from Brigantia to Vindonissa, and from Vindonissa to Regino. The stations on the latter, which passed through the district abound- ing in ' ings,' are thus identified ; the distances between them, except in one case (where there is a dif- ference of 2 leugen), answering to those marked in the Table (see p. 35):— Vindonissa (Windisch), Tene- done (Heidenschloschen), Juliomago (Hiifingen), Brigobanne (Rottweil), Arisjlavis (Unter-Iflingen), Samulo- cennis ( Rottenberg ), Grinario (Sindelfingen), Clarenna (Caris- statt), Ad lunam (Pfahlbronn; Aquileia (Aalen) [up to which point there is a remarkable change of names throughout, but from which point the similarity of names becomes striking], Opie (Bopfin- gen), Septemiaci (Maihingen), Lo- sodica (Oettingen), Medianis (Mark- hof), Iciniaco (Ttzing), Biricianis (Burkmarshofen), Vetonianis (Nas- senfels), Germanico (KSsching) Celeuso (Ettling), Abusena (Abens- berg), Regino (Regensburg). But these names in ing and ingen, and Latin iaci, do not seem to be patro- nymic. So also in the case of the Roman ' Vicus Aurelii' on the Ohra river, now ' Oehringen.' Is it not possible that many other supposed patronymics may simply mean such and such or So-and-so's ' ings ' or meadows ? 362 The German Land System. Chap. ix. which the peculiar suffix was added were personal uanies and not family or clan names — John and Thomas, and not Smith and Jones — it would not be safe to press the inference from the similarity too far. Baldo was the name of a person. There may have been persons of that name in every tribe in Germany. The Baldo of one tribe need not be closely related to the Baldo of another tribe, any more than John Smith need be related to John Jones. The households of each Baldo would be called Baldings, or in the old form Baldingas ; but obviously the Baldings of England need have no clan-relationship whatever to the Baldings of Upper Germany.1 Nevertheless, the striking similarity of mere personal names goes for something, and it is impossible to pass it by un- noticed. The extent of it may be shown by a few examples. In the following list are placed all the local names mentioned in the Domesday Survey of Sussex, be- ginning with the first two letters of the alphabet in which the peculiar suffix occurs, whether as final or not,2 and opposite to them similar personal or local But the identity of the names through- out is very remark- able. 1 The occasional instances in which the patronymic termination is added to the name of a tree or an animal, has led to the hasty con- clusion that the Saxons were ' to- temists,' and believed themselves de- scended from trees and animals ; e.g. that the Buckings of Bucks thought themselves descendants of the beech tree. The fact that per- sonal names were taken from trees and animals — that one person called himself ' the Beech,' another ' the Wolf1 — quite disposes of this argu- ment, for their households would call themselves ' Beechings ' and ' Wolfings' in quite a natural course, without any dream of descent from the tree or the animal whose name their father or great-grandfather had borne. 2 The resemblance is equally apparent whether the comparison be made between names without further suffix or whether those with it are included. See the long list Tribal Households. names taken from the early records of Wirtembercf, Chap. ix. i.e. the district of the Khine, Maine, and Neckar, for merly part of the ' Agri Decumates.' In Sussex Sussex. Achingeworde Aldingeborne Babintone Basingekam Bechingetone Beddingesjham Belingeham Berchinges Bevringetone Bollintun Botingelle Brislinga Wirtemberg. Acco, Echo, Eccho, Achelm Aldingas Babinberch, Babenhausen, Bebingon Besigheim Bechingen Bedzingeswilaeri Bellingon, Bollingerhof Bercheim Bollo, Bollinga Bottinger Brisgau As regards the supposed patronymic names in inPicardy. the district between Calais and St. Omer, Mr. Taylor states that 80 per cent, are found also in England.1 We may take as a further example the resemblance in the i f i o .. > Moselle between names of places occurring in Spruner s maps vauey. of i Deutschlands Gaue ' in the Moselle valley and those of places and persons mentioned in early Wirtemberg charters. Moselle Valley. Beringa Eelingis Frisingen Gundredingen Heminingsthal Holdingen Hasmaringa Lukesinga Wirtemberg. Beringerus Esslingen Frieso, Frisingen Gundrud Hemminbah Holda Hasmareeheim Lucas, Lucilunburch of patronymic names in England, 496-513. Germany, and France in Taylor's 1 Taylor's Words and Places, pp. Words and Places, App. B, pp. 131-4, and App. B, p. 491. 364 The German Land System. Chap. IX. In Cham- pagne. Moselle Valley. M under ckinga Ottringas Putilinga Uffeninga Uttingon Wirtemberg. Mundricheshuntun, Mun- derkingen Oteric, Otrik Pettili, Pertilo Ufeninga Uto, Uttinuuilare The following coincidences * occur in the modern Champagne, which embraces another district into which forced emigrants were deported. Champagne. Autigny Effincourt Euffigneux Alincourt Arrigne Orhigny Attigny Etigny Bocquegney Bettigny England. Edington Effingbam Uffington Allington Arrington Orpington Attington Ettingball Buckingham Beddington Wirtemberg. Eutingen Oeffingen Oinngen Erringhausen Erpfingen Atting Oettinger Bochingen Bottingen And so on in about forty cases. A comparison of the fifteen similar names in Frisia occurring in the Fulda records, with other similar names of places or persons in England and Wirtemberg, gives an equally clear result. Ln Frisia. Frisia? Auinge Baltratingen Belinge Bi ittingo Wirtemberg} Au, Auenhofen Baldhart, Baldingen Bellingon Bottingen England. rAvington (Berks and \ Hants) Beltings (Kent) / Bellingdon "i Several \Bellings J counties f Boddington(Gloucester, \ Northampton) 1 See the lists given in Taylor's Words and Places, Appendix B, pp. ■VM) et seq. Taylor says that there are 1,100 of the patronymic names in France, of which 250 are similar to those in England. See pp. 144 *t seq. 2 Taken from Traditiones Fuld- ensis, Dronke, pp. 240-243. The above list includes all the names in Frisia with a patronymic and no other suffix. 3 Taken from the Wirtem- bergische Urkundenbuch. Tribal Households. :;<;.-, Frisia, Creslinge Gandiugen Gutinge Hustinga Huchingen Husdingun Rochinge Suettenge Wacheiinge Wasginge Weiugi Wirtemberg. "Oreglingen, ('hrez- 1 . zingen J fHuchiheitn 1 \Huc = HugoJ Roingus, Rohinc Suittes, Suitger Uuachar Uuassingun Wehingen England. rCressing (Essex) t.Cressinghain (Norfolk) f Guyting (Glouce.-ter) IGetingas (Surrey) Hucking (Kent) Rockingham (Notts) Wakering (Essex) Washington (Sussex) Chap. L\. It is impossible to follow out in greater detail these The infer- remarkable resemblances between the personal names draw,, ° which appear with a patronymic suffix in the local ^^y. names in England and Frisia, and certain well-defined districts west of the Ehine, and the local and personal names mentioned in the Wirtemberg charters. The foregoing instances must not be regarded as more than examples. And for the reasons already given it would also be unwise to build too much upon this evident similarity in the personal names, but still it should be remembered that the facts to be accounted for are — (1) The concentration of these places with names having a supposed patronymic termination in certain defined districts mostly within the old Eoman provinces. (2) The practical identity throughout all these districts of so many of the personal names to which this suffix is attached. The first fact points to these settlements in tribal households having taken place by peaceable or forcible emigration during Eoman rule, or very soon after, at all events at about the same period. The second fact points to the practical homogeneity of the German tribes, whose emigrants founded the settlements which 366 The German Land System. The settle ments in tribal household; may have been manors. Chap. ix. in England, Flanders, around Troyes and Langres, on the Moselle, in Wirtemberg, in Bavaria, and also in Frisia, bear the common suffix to their names. The facts already mentioned of the survival to a great extent in the same districts, strikingly so in Eng- land, of the right of the youngest, and in Kent of the original form of the local custom of Gavelkind, point in the same direction. Taking all these things together, we may at least regard the economic problem involved in them as one deserving closer attention than has yet been given to it. In conclusion, turning back to the direct relation of these facts to the process of transition of the German tribal system into the later manorial system, it must be remembered that the holdings of tribal households might quite possibly be, from the first, embryo manors with serfs upon them. They might be settlements precisely like those described by Tacitus, the lordship of which had become the joint inheritance of the heirs of the founder. As a matter of fact, the actual settlements in question had at all events become manors before the dates of the earliest documents. We have seen, e.g., that the villas belonging to the monks of St. Bertin, with their almost invariable suffix ' ingahem,' were manors from the time of the first records in the seventh century, and they may never have been anything else. We have seen that in the year 645 the founder of the abbey gave to the monks his villa called Sitdiu, and its twelve dependent villas {Tatinga villa, afterwards Tatingahem, among them)1 with the slaves and coloni upon them. They seem to 1 Chartularium Sithiense, p. 18. Tribal Households. 3f>7 have been, in fact, so many manorial farms just like C"AP- IX- those which, as we learned from Gregory of Tours, Chrodinus in the previous century founded and handed over to the Church. We have not found, therefore, in this inquiry into They at the character of the settlements with local names mately bl- ending in the supposed patronymic suffix, doubtful as m^oriai. its result has proved, anything which conflicts with the general conclusion to which we were brought by the manorial character of the Roman villa and the mano- rial tendency of the German tribal system as described by Tacitus, viz. that as a general rule the German settlements made upon the conquest of what had once been Roman provinces were of a strictly manorial type. If the settlements with names ending in ing were settlements of Iceti or of other emigrants during Roman rule, taking at first the form of tribal house- holds, they at least became manors like the rest during or very soon after the German conquests. If, on the other hand, they were later settlements of the con- querors of the Roman provinces, or of emigrants fol- lowing in the wake of the conquests, they none the les on that account soon became just as manorial as those Roman villas which by a change of lordship and translation of words may have become German heims or Anglo Saxon hams. It is certainly possible that during a short period, especially if they held no serfs or slaves, tribal households may have expanded into free village communities. But to infer from the existence of patronymic local names that German emigration at all generally took the form of free village communities would surely not be consistent with the evidence. .-- vjj^vg CHAPTER X. THE CONNEXION BETWEEN TEE 0PEX-F1ELD SYSTEM AND SERFDOM OF ENGLAND AND OF THE ROMAN PROVINCES OF GERMANY AND GAUL. Chap. X. Under the manorial system, th' open-field system the shell of serfdom. I. THE OPEX-FIELD SYSTEM IX EXGLAXD AXD IN GERMAXY COMPARED. We now return to the English manorial and open- field system, in order, taking it up where we left it, to trace its connexion with the similar Continental system, and to inquire in what districts the closest resemblances to it are to be found — whether in the un-Romanised north or in the southern districts so long included within the limes of the Roman provinces. The earliest documentary evidence available on English ground left us in full possession of the Saxon manor with its village community of serfs upon it. inhabiting as its shell the open-field system in its most organised form, i.e. with its (generally) three fields, its furlongs, its acre or half-acre strips, its headlands, its yard-lands or bundles of normally thirty acres, scat- tered all over the fields, the yard-land representing the year's ploughing of a pair of oxen in the team of The Open-Field System. 3C9 eight, and the acre strip the measure of a day's plough- Chap. x. work of the team. This was the system described in the ' Rectitudines* of the tenth century, and the allusions to the * gebur,' the * yard-land,' the ' setene,' the ' gafol,' and the ' week-work ' in the laws of Ine carried back the evi- dence presumably to the seventh century. But it must not be forgotten that side by side Simpler with this manorial open-field system we found an open-field earlier and simpler form of open-field husbandry underTh? carried on by the free tribesmen and taeogs of Wales. trxh?] J o system. This simpler system described in the Welsh laws and the ' triads ' seemed to be in its main features practically identical with that described also in the Germania of Tacitus. It was an annual ploughing up of fresh grass-land, leaving it to go back again into grass after the year's ploughing. It was, in fact, the agriculture of a pastoral people, with a large range of pasture land for their cattle, a small portion of which annually selected for tillage sufficed for their corn crops. This is clearly the meaning of Tacitus, * Arva per annos mutant et super est ager.' It is clearly the meaning of the Welsh ' triads,' according to which the tribesman's right extended to his ' tyddyn,' with its corn and cattle yard, and to co-aration of the waste. Nor can there be much mystery in the relation of these two forms of open-field husbandry to each other. In both, the arable land is divided in the ploughing into furlongs and strips. There is co-opera- tion of ploughing in both, the contribution of oxen to the common team of eight in both, the allotment of the strips to the owners of the oxen in rotation, B B 370 The Open-Field System Chap. X. Three-field syst< m produced three- course ro- tation of crops. The yard- land the mark of serfdom. producing the same scattering of the strips in both. The methods are the same. The difference lies in the application of the methods to two different stages of economic growth. The simple form is adapted to the early nomadic stage of tribal life, and survives even after partial settlement, so long as grassland is sufficiently abundant to allow of fresh ground being broken by the plough each year. The more complex and organised form implies fixed settlement on the same territory, the necessity for a settled agri- culture within a definite limit, and the consequent ploughing of the same land over and over again for generations. The three-field system seems to be simply the adaptation of the early open-field husbandry to a permanent three-course rotation of crops. But there is a further distinguishing feature of the English three-field system which implies the introduction of yet another factor in the complex result, viz. the yard-land. And this indivisible bundle of strips, to which there was always a single succession, was evidently the holding not of a free tribesman whose heirs would inherit and divide the inheritance, but of a serf, to whom an outfit of oxen had been allotted. In fact, the complex and more organised system would naturally grow out of the simpler form under the two conditions of settlement and serfdom. Now, turning from England to the Continent, we have in the same way various forms of the open-field system to deal with, and in c omparing them with the English system their geographical distribution becomes very important. Happily, very close attention has recently been given to this subject by German students, and we are in England and Germany. 371 able to rely with confidence on the facts collected by Chap. x. Dr. Landau ,* by Dr. Iianssen,2 and lastly by Dr. August Ge Meitzen in his Ausbreitung der Deutschen in Deutsch- ftotnoritiw land,8 and in his still more recent and interesting German review of the collected works of Dr. Hanssen.4 Whilst Ave learn from these writers that much remains to be done before the last word can be said upon so intricate a subject, some general points seem at least to be clearly made out. In the first place there are some German systems of husbandry which may well be weeded out at once from the rest as not analogous to the Anglo-Saxon three-field system in England. There is the old ' Feldgraswirthschaft,' analogous TheFeid- perhaps to the Welsh co-ploughing of the waste and Shaft!** the shifting ' Arva ' of the Germans of Tacitus, which still lingers in the mountain districts of Germany and Switzerland, where corn is a secondary crop to grass.5 There are the ' Einzelh'dfe ' of Westphalia and other The Em- districts, i.e. single farms, each consisting mainly of zelhofe- land all in one block, like a modern English farm, but as different as possible from the old English open- field system, with its yard-lands and scattered strips.6 Further, there is a peculiar form of the open-field system, chiefly found in forest and marsh districts, in which each holding consists generally of one single 1 ' Die Territorien in Bezug auf Hire Bildung und Hire Entwiclclung,1 Hamburg and Gotha, 1854. 2 Dr. Hanssen's various papers on the subject are collected in his Agrarhistorische Abhandlungen, Leipzig, 1880. 8 Jena, 1879. 4 ' Georg Iianssen, als Agrar- Etstoriker.' Von August Meitzen, 1881. Tubingen. s See Hanssen's chapter, 'Die Feldgraswirthschaft deutscher Ge- biry&gegenden] in his Agrarhist* AbhandL, pp. 132 et seq. 6 Landau, pp. 1G 20. B a 372 The Open-Field System Chap. x. \01lg strip of land, reaching from the homestead right Forest and across the village territory to its boundary.1 This lystem. system, so different from the prevalent Anglo-Saxon system, is supposed to represent comparatively modern colonisation and reclamation of forest and marsh land ; and though possibly bearing some analogy to the Eng- lish fen system, is not that for which we are seeking. Passing all these by, we come to a peculiar method of husbandry which covers a large tract of country, and which is adopted under both the single farm system and also the open-field system with scat- tered ownership, but which nevertheless is opposed to the three-field system. It is especially important for our purpose because of its geographical position. The one- ^11 over the sand and bog district of the north of field sys- tem Germany, crops, mostly of rye and buckwheat, have for centuries been grown year after year on the same land, kept productive by marling and peat manure, on what Hanssen describes as the ' one-field system.' 2 This system is found in Westphalia, East Friesland, Oldenburg, North Hanover, Holland, Belgium, Den- mark, Brunswick, Saxony, and East Prussia. Over parts of the district under this one-field system the single-farm system prevails, in others the fields are divided into ' Gewanne ' and strips, and there is scattered ownership. Now, possibly this one-field system, with its marling and peat manure, may have been the system described by Pliny as prevalent in Belgic Britain and Gaul before the Eoman conquest, 1 See the interesting examples i 2 See Hanssen's chapter on the (riven in Meitzen's Ausbreitxmg, 'EinfMwirth&chaft} Agrarhist. Ab- with maps. I handl. pp. iGO et seq. in England and Germany. 373 but certainly it is not the system prevalent in Chap. x. England under Saxon rule. And yet this district . Nor(h where the one-field system is prevalent in Germany Germany, is precisely the district from which, according to the common theory, the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain came. It is precisely the district of Germany where the three-field system is conspicuously absent. So that although Nasse and Waitz somewhat hastily suggested that the Saxons had introduced the three- field system into England, Hanssen, assuming that the invaders of England came from the north, con- fidently denies that this was possible. ' The Anglo- ' Saxons and the Frisians and Low Germans and ' Jutes who came with them to England cannot [he ' writes] have brought the three-field system with 1 them into England, because they did not themselves ' use it at home in North-west Germany and Jutland. He adds that even in later times the three-field system has never been able to obtain a firm footing in these coast districts.1 There remains the question, where on the Conti- The thre*- nent was prevalent that two- or three-field system teem sys analogous to the one most generally prevalent on the manors of England ? The result of the careful inquiries of Hanssen, Landau, and Meitzen seems to be, broadly speaking, this, viz., that setting aside the complication which arises in those districts where there has been a Slavic occupation of German ground and a German re-occu- pation of Slavic ground,2 the ancient three-field system, with its huben of scattered strips, was most 1 Hanssen, p. 496. I tion, see especially Meitzen's Aus- 8 As to this part of the ques- | breitumj. 374 The Open-Field System Chap. x. generally prevalent south of the Lippe and the in the old Teutoberger Walcl, i.e. in those districts once occu- Kon.an" pied by the Suevic tribes located round the Eoman districts. UmeSi and still more in those districts within the Eoman limes which were once Eoman province — the ' Agri Decumates,' Ehsetia, and Germania Prima — the present Baden, Wirtemberg, Swabia, and Bavaria, on the German side of the Ehine, and Elsass and the Moselle valley on its Gallic side.1 These once Eoman or partly Eomanised districts were undoubtedly its chief home. Sporadically and later, it existed further north but not generally. This general geographical conclusion is very im- portant. But before we can fairly assume either a Eoman or South German origin, the similarity of the English and South German systems must be examined in their details and earliest historical traces. Further, the examination must not be confined to the shell. It must be extended also to the serfdom which in Germany as in England, so to speak, lived within it. In previous chapters some of the resemblances between the English and German systems have inci- dentally been noticed, but the reader will pardon some repetition for the sake of clearness in the state- ment of this important comparison. 1 Landau, ' Die Tcrriturieu,' pp. o2 et seg. in England and Germany. 375 < IP. x. II. THE BOUNDARIES, OR ' MARCH. E.' First as to the whole territory or ager occupied The boun- . . claries, or by the village community or township. This, by man . the presentment of the homage of the Hitchin Manor, was described in the record by its boundaries — from such a place to such a place, and so on till the start- ing-point was reached again. In the ' gemceru ' of the Saxon charters the same form was used. In the ' mar dim ' of the manors surrendered to the abbey of Lorsch in the seventh and eighth cen- turies, the same form was used in the Rhine valley. It is, in fact, as we have seen, a form in use before the Christian era, and described by the Roman ' Agrimensores ' as often adopted in recording the '■limites'' of irregular territories, to which their rect- angular centuriation did not extend. Now, when we consider this method, it implies permanent settlements close to one another, where even the marshes or forests lying between them have been permanently divided by a fixed line, or it im- plies that a necessity has arisen to mark off the occu- pied territory from the ager publicus. It may have been derived from the rough and ready methods of marking divisions of tribe-land during the early and unsettled stages of tribal life. But the German settlements described by Tacitus seem to have been without defined boundaries. * Agri ' were taken pos- session of according to the number of the settlers, pro numero cultorum. Not till some outside influence compelled final settlement would the necessity for 376 The Open-Field System Chap. x. well-marked boundaries of territories arise. And we have seen that the evidence of local names strongly points to the Eoman rule as this settling influence. In the Lorsch charters the districts included within the ' marchse ' are often, as we have seen, called ' marks.' III. THE THREE FIELDS, OR ' ZELGEN.' The three Next as to the division of the arable land into fields — generally three fields l — representing the annual rotation of crops. The homage of the Hit-chin Manor presented that the common fields within the township had im- memoriably been and ought to be kept and cul- tivated in three successive seasons of — (1) Tilth-grain, (2) Etch-grain, and (3) Fallow. The three fields are elsewhere commonly known as the — (1) Winter corn, (2) Spring corn, and (3) Fallow. Universally, the fallow ends at the autumn sowing of the wheat crop of the next season, which is hence called ' winter corn.' The word etch, or eddish, or edish, occurs in Tusser, and means the stubble of the previous crop 1 Sometimes in Germany, as in I Seelianssen'schaptersonthe'Zfm-, England, there were two or more. | Vier- und Fiinffelderwirthachaft! in England and Germany. 377 of whatever kind. Thus, in the ' Directions for Chap. x. February,' he says,— Etch-grain sown on ' Eat etch, ere ye plow, the Btobble With hog, sheep, and cow.' ' °f a Pre" vious crop. This is evidently to prepare the stubble of the last year's corn crop for the spring sown bean or other crop ; for under the same month he says, — Go plow in the stuhble, for now is the season For sowing of vetches, of beans, and of peason.2 In the directions for the October sowing are the following lines : — Seed first go fetch For edish, or etch. "White wheat if ye please, Sow now upon pease.3 And again, — Wben wheat upon eddish ye mind to bestow Let that be the first of the wheat ye do sow. White wheat upon pease-efeA doth grow as he would, But fallow is best if we did as we should. When peason ye had and a fallow thereon, Sow wheat ye may well without dung thereupon.* ' Etch-grain ' is therefore the crop, generally Tilth-grain oats or beans, sown in spring after ploughing the the fallow, stubble of the wheat crop, which itself was best sown if possible upon the fallow, and so was called the ' tilth-grain.' The oats or beans grown on the wheat stubble Breach- were sometimes called ' Breach-corn, and Breach- land was land prepared for a second crop.6 1 Tusser, ' February Abstract.' 2 Id. ' February Husbandry.' 8 Id. ' October Abstract.' Id. ' October Husbandry.' Ilalliwell, sub voce. 378 The Open-Field System Chap. X. Names for the three fields, ' 1'elder,' 'Sitiones, ' Zelgen. ' Esch,' and the Gothic ' Atti.sk.' Where shall we find these words and things on the Continent? Looking to the Latin words used for the three fields, it is obvious that these were sometimes regarded as three separate ploughings — araturce, or cultures^ — or as so many sowings — sationes?- — just as in the north of England they are called ' falls,' or ' fallows,' which have to be ploughed. In North Germany, where they occur, they are generally simply called *J "elder ; ' 2 in France around Paris they were called in the ninth century ' sationes ;'3 but in South Germany and Switzerland the usual word for each field is Zelg, which Dr Landau connects with the Anglo-Saxon ' tilgende ' (tilling), and the later English ' tilth,7 one of the Hitchin words. And he says that Zelg strictly means only the ploughed field 4 (aratura), though used for all the three. The three fields were thus spoken of as three tilths. The word ' Zelg ' we have already found in the St. Gall charters in the eighth century, and Dr. Landau points out other instances of the same date of its use in the districts of Swabia, the middle Ehine, and later in the Inn Valley. On the other hand, in Westphalia, in Baden, and especially in Upper Swabia and Upper Bavaria, as far as the river Isar, and also in Switzerland, the word Esch is the one in use,5 the word being used in 1 ' Campis Sationalibus'' Char- ter, a.d. 704. B. M. Ancient Charter, Cotton MS. Augustus, ii. 82. ' Tuican lioin ' (Twickenham, in Middlesex). 2 Landau, 53. 3 Gtierard's Polyp. (TIrminon. 'Arat inter tres sationes pertica treat' pp. 134, &c. ; and see Glossary, p. 45G. 4 Landau, p. 54. 5 Landau, p. 54. ' Die alte Form dieses Wortes i3t czzisc, ezzisca, czzisch (gothisch atisk), und wird in don Glossen durch scyetes erkliirt.' frichte.' in England and Germany. 379 Westphalia, also for the whole arable area.1 Esch Chap. x. also was in use at the date of the earliest form of the Bavarian laws (in the seventh century). The hedge put up in defence of the sown field is there called an ' ezzisczun.' 2 Still earlier, in the fourth century, further East the open fields seem to have been called ' attish ; ' for Ulphilas, in his translation of Mark ii. 23, speaks of the disciples walking over the 1 attish ' — i.e. over the ' etch,' or ' eddish ' — instead of as in the Anglo-Saxon translation over the ' cecera.' Here, therefore, we have another of the Hitchin words. In Hesse, according to Dr. Landau, the three «Brach- fields are spoken of as — (1) In der Lentzen. (2) In der Brache. (3) In der Rure. On the Main, in the fifteenth century, they were spoken of as — (1) Lenz frichte. (2) Brack frichte. (3) .Rot frichte. In Elsass, in the fourteenth century, and on the Danube — (1) Brochager (Brach field) (2) Rurager (Fallow field) were used, and Dr. Landau says that Esch is sometimes put in contrast with ' Brack.'' 3 Whatever may be 1 Hanssen's chapter, ' Zur Ge- Periz, p. 309. In id. x. 21 the schichte der Feldsysteme in Deutsch- words ' Semites convicinales ' are land,' in his Agrarhistorische Ab- used of open fields. In the Bur- handlungen, p. 194. I gundian Laws ' Additamentuin Pri- 8 'Si ilium sepem eruperit vel mum,' tit. 1, ' Agri communes.' dissipaverit quem Ezzisczun vocant,' 3 Landau, pp. 54-5. &c. Textus Legis Primus, x. 16. 380 The Open-Field System Chap. X. These words point to connexion with South Germany. the exact meaning of the word Brack — whether referring to the breaking of the rotation or the breaking of the stubble — there can be no doubt of the identity of the word with the English Breach and Breach-corn. It appears, therefore, that in South Germany, and especially in the districts once Soman province, the three fields representing the rotation of crops for many centuries have been known by names closely resembling those used in England. ■shot.' Gewann.' Headland. IV. THE DIVISION OF THE FIELDS INTO FURLONGb AND ACRES. Passing next to the divisions of the open fields, we take first the Furlongs or Shots (the Latin Quarentenaz). The word ' Shot ' probably is simply the Anglo- Saxon ' sceot,' or division ; but it is curious to find in a document of 1318 mention of ' imam peciam, quod vulgariter dicitur Schoet ' at Passau, near the junction of the Inn with the Danube.1 The usual word in Middle and South Germany ' is ' Gewende,' in Lower Germany ' Wande ' or ' Wanne,' or ' Gewann ' — words which no less than the Furlong 2 refer to the length of the furrow and the turning of the plough at the end of it. The headland, on which the plough was turned, 1 Passau received its name from a Roman legion of Batavi having been stationed there.— Mon. Boica, xxx. p. 83. Landau, p. 49. 2 In East Friesland, under the one-field system, the word 'flagyen ' is used for ' furlongs.' Hanssen, p. 198. in England and Germany. 381 is also found in the German three-field system as in Chap.x. England. In a Frankish document quoted by Dr. Landau, it 'Vorackcr.1 is called the ' VorackerJ elsewhere it is known as the ' Anwdnder ' (versura), or ' Vorwart! 1 In the English system the furlongs were divided into strips or acres by turf balks left in the plough- ing, and, as we have seen, on hill-sides, the strips became terraces, and the balks steep banks called ' linces.' It will be remembered that these were The Lince produced by the practice of always turning the sod f^jj #. downhill in the ploughing. There are many linces as far north as in the district of the 'Teutoberger Wald,'2 and they occur in great numbers as far south as the Inn Valley, all the way up to St. Mauritz and Pontresina. Although in many places the terraces in the Engadine are now grass-land, it is well known to the peasantry that they were made by ancient ploughing. The German word for the turf slope of these terraces is c Rain, and, like the word balk, it means a strip of unploughed turf.3 It is sometimes used for the terrace itself. Precisely the same word is used for the similar terraces in the Dales of Yorkshire, which are still called by the Dalesmen ' reeans ' or ' reins' 4 Terraces of the same kind are found in 1 Landau, p. 32. 2 There are great numbers to be Been from tbe railway from Ems as far as Nordbausen on the route to Berlin. 3 Thus Rainbalken is the turf balk left unploughed as a boundary. 4 Halliwell. 'Rain} a ridge (north). See also Studies, by Joseph Lucas, F.G.S., c. viii., where there is an interesting de- scription of the ' Reins ' in Nidder- dale. These terraces occur in the neighbouring dale3 of Billsdale, Bransdale, and Furndale ; and also in Wharf dale and the valley of tbe Kibble, &c. 382 The Open-Field System The Celtic Elian. Citap. x. Scotland ; and when Pennant in 1772 asked what they were called, he was told that they were ' baulks' l Both words suggest a wider than merely German origin. ' Balk ' is as thoroughly a Welsh word 2 as it is English and German. 'Eain' can hardly be other than the Welsh ' Rhan ' (a division), or * Rhyn* and ' grwn ' (a ridge), with which the name of the open-field system in Ireland and Scotland — ' run-rig ' — is no doubt connected. The English word lince or linch, with the Anglo-Saxon ' Mine ' and ' hlince,' is perhaps allied to the Anglo-Saxon ' Hlynian,' or * Hlinian,' to lean, making its participle ' hlynigende ;' and this, and the old High German ' hlinen,' are surely connected with the Latin and Italian lin- clinare' and the French ' enclin.1 As we have seen, the Roman ' Agrimensores ' called these slopes or terraces ' super cilia.' The acre strip a day's work. Next let us ask, whence came the English acre strip itself? It represented, as we have seen, a day's work at ploughing. Hence the German Morgen and Tagwerk, in the Alps Tag wan and Tag wen ; and hence also, as early as the eighth century, the Latin 'jurnalis ' and 1 Pennant's Tour in Scotland, p. 281. ' Observed on the right several very regular terraces cut on the face of a hill. They are most exactly formed, a little raised in the middle like a firm walk, and about 20 feet broad, and of very consider- able length. In some places were three, in others five nights, placed one above the other, terminating exactly in a line at each end, and most precisely finished. I am told that such tiers of terraces are not un- common in these parts, where they are called baulks.' 2 See Pugh's Welsh Dictionary : Bale, a break in furrow land. Balcia, a breaking of furrows. Balcio, to break furrows. Balciog, having irregular furrows. Balciwr, a breaker of furrows. And see supra, p. 4. in England and Germany. 383 1 diurnalis.'1 In early Koman times Varro describes Chap.x. the jugerum [or jugurn] — the Roman acre — as ' quod 'juncti boves uno die exarare possint.'2 The division of arable open fields into day-works was therefore ancient. It was also widely spread, and by no means confined to the three-field system. It was common to the co-aration of both free tribesmen and ' taeogs ' in Wales ; and the Fellahin of Palestine to this moment divide their open fields into day-works for the purpose of easy division among them, accord- ing to their ploughs or shares in a plough.3 In the Irish open-field system, as we have seen, the land was very early divided into equal ' ridges,' for in the passage quoted, referring to the pressure of population in the seventh century, the complaint was, not that the people received smaller ridges than in former times, but fewer of them. These ridges, how- ever, may or may not have been ' day-works.' But perhaps, outside of the three-field system, a still more widely spread practice was that of dividing the furlongs or larger divisions into as many strijis as there were sharers, without reference to the size of the strips. This practice seems to be the one adopted in many parts of Germany, in Eussia, and in the East, and it is in common use in the western districts of Scotland to this day whenever a piece of land is held by a number of crofters as joint holders.4 1 So in the St. Gall charters, quoted above. Thus also Dronke, Traditiones et Antiq. Fuldenses, p. 107, ' xx. diurnales hoc est quod tot diebus arari poterit.' — Landau, 3 See supra, chapter viii. 4 I have found it in use on the coast opposite the Isle of Skye. Several crofters will take a tract of land, divide it first into larger 45. . divisions, or ' parks,' and then divide 2 Varro, Be Re Rustica,\. 10; the parks into lot9, of which each and see Plin. Hist. Nat. 18. 3. 15. ! takes one. 384 The Open-Field System Chap. x. it Js doubtful whether the division into acre strips representing day-works, and divided from their neigh- bours by ' raine ' or balks, was one of the features of the original German system of ploughing. It is chiefly, if not entirely, in the districts within or near to the Eoman ' limes,' or colonised after the conquest of the Eoman provinces, that it appears to have been prevalent.1 With regard to the word ' acre,' it is probably of very ancient origin. The German ' acker ' has the wider sense of ploughed land in general, but sometimes in East Friesland,2 and also in South Germany and German Switzerland it has still the restricted meaning of the acre strip laid out for ploughing.3 Roman jugerum. We now pass to the form of the acre strip or day's work in ploughing. The Eoman actus or furrow length was 120 feet, or twelve 10-feet rods. The actus quadratus was 120 feet square. The jugerum was composed of two of these actus quadrati. It was therefore in length still an actus or furrow of 120 feet, and it was twice as broad as it was long ; whilst the length of the English acre is ten times its breadth. Thus the English acre varied much in its shape 1 I am indebted for this informa- tion to Professor Meitzen, who in- forms me that he doubts whether it waa a feature of the old purely German open fields. In undisturbed old German districts the ' Gewanne ' and strips are of irregular and arbitrary size, and are not separated by permanent turf ' raine ' or balks. 2 Hanssen, p. 198. 3 In the Engadine, in reply to the question what the flat strips between the linches were called, the driver answered, ' acker.1 When it was pointed out that they were grass, the reply was, ' Ah 1 but a hundred years ago they were ploughed.' in England and Germany. 385 from the Roman jugerum. Its exact measurements CuAV- x are found in the mappa, or measure of the day-work of strips of the tenants of the abbot of St. Eemy at Rheims, which fo^fStiw is described in the Polyptique of the ninth century SfjjJ1 as forty perches in length and four in width.1 It 1Vl'" ml J l , ° in Biivana occurs again in the ' napatica ' of the Polyptique of ia tho the abbey of St. Maur, near Nantes, which was of century. precisely the same dimensions.2 And we have seen that the ' andecena,' or measure of the day's work of ploughing for the coloni and servi of the Church, was described by the Bavarian laws in the seventh cen- tury as of precisely the same form as the English acre, forty rods in length and four rods in width, only that the rods were Roman rods of 10 feet. We have to go, therefore, to Bavaria in the seventh century for the earliest instance of the form of the English acre. And in this earliest instance it had a distinctly servile connexion, as it had also in the French cases quoted. In all it fixed the day's task- work of semi-servile tenants. Further, the Bavarian ' andecena,' if the spelling of the word may be trusted, may have another curious and interesting connexion with the Saxon acre, to which attention must be once more turned. We have seen that the tithes were to be paid in Saxon times in the produce of ' every tenth acre as it 1 M. Guerard's Introduction to , is given to the abbey ' cum sedecim the Polyptique d'Irminon, p. 641. 2 Id. p. 641 ; and Appendix, i. p. 285. The Irish acre is of the same form as the English— 4 rods porcionibus terra qua? lingua eorum "acres" nominantur' (a.d. 1061- 1075). In Normandy, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there were by 40— but the rod is 21 feet. See acres of four roods, ' vergtSes.' Id. the Cartulaire de liedon in Brittiiny, p. cccxi. Compare also the form of No.cccxxvi.(p.277),whereachurch the Welsh erw. C C 3SG The Open-Field System Chap. X. The form in which the ' agra- rium' or tithe-rent Mas taken. is traversed by the plough.' The Roman land-tribute in Rhsetia and the ' Agri Decumates ' also consisted of tithes. If these latter tithes were paid as the Saxon ecclesiastical tithes were, by every tenth strip being set aside for them in the ploughing, the words of the Bavarian law have an important significance. The judex or villicus is required by the laws to see that the colonus or serous shall render by way of agra- n'/tm or land tribute according to what he has, from every thirty modii three modii (i.e. the tenth) — 'lawful ' andecence (andecenas legitimas), that is (the rod having 4 ten feet) four rods in width and forty in length, to * plough, to sow, to hedge, to gather, to lead, and to ' store.'1 Now why is the peculiar phraseology used ' from * 30 modii 3 modii ' ? Surely either because three modii, according to the ' Agrimensores,' went to the juger, or because the actual acre of the locality was sown with three modii of seed,2 so that in either case it was a way of saying ' from every ten acres one acre.' Further, the form and measure of the acre is de- scribed, and it is called the ' lawful andecena.' The word itself in its peculiar etymology possibly contains a reference to the one strip set apart in ten for the tithe. Be this as it may, here again, in another point connected with the ' acre,' we find the nearest and earliest analogies in South Germany within the old Roman province. 1 Pertz, 278. Lex Baiuwario- rum tcxtus leyis primus, 13. 2 The Agrimensores reckoned 3 modii of land to the jugerum. Gro- matici Vcteres, i. p. 359 (13). In general u modii of wheat seed was sown on the jugerum, but the ' Imo ful andecena,1 being only about three-fifths of a jugerum, would re- quire only 3 modii of wheat seed to sow it. in England and Germany. 387 Lastly, we have still to explain the reason of the Chap. x. difference between the form of the Roman 'actus' and 'jugerum' and that of the early Bavarian and English acre. The Egyptian arura was 100 cubits square.1 The Greek ir\49pov was 10 rods or 100 feet square.2 The Roman actus was 12 rods or 120 feet square. The Roman ' jugerum ' was made up of two ' actus ' placed side by side, and was the area to be ploughed in a day. In all these cases the yoke of two oxen is assumed, Form of and the length of the acre, or ' day-work,' is the fayVwoHc length of the furrow which two oxen could properly connected wit h the plough at a stretch.3 '"""' ' c oi ° oxen in The reason of the increased length of the Bavarian the team. and the English acre was, no doubt, connected with the fact of the larger team.4 If the Bavarian team was of eight oxen, like that of the English and Welsh and Scotch common plough, it would seem perfectly natural that with four times the strength of team the furrow might also be assumed to be four times the usual length. In this way the Greek and Roman furrow of 10 or 12 rods may na- turally have been extended north of the Alps into the ' furlong ' of forty rods. 1 Herod, ii. 168. j 11, 27. 2 According to Suidas it was 4 The Rev. W. Denton, in his equal to four apovpat, and Homer Servia and the Servians, p. 135, mentions rerpuyvov as a usual field mentions Servian ploughs with six, representing a day's work. (Od. , ten, or twelve oxen in the train. xviii. 374.) Hence rerpayvov = ' as See also mention of similar teams much as a man can plough in a day.' of oxen or buffaloes in Turkey — 3 ' Sulcum autem ducere longi- I Reports on Tenures of Land, 1800- orem quam pedum centumviginti 70, p. 306. contrarium pecori est.' — Col. ii. c c 2 388 The 0 pen-Field System Chap. x. Now, there is a remarkable proof that long furrows, and therefore probably large teams, were used in Bavaria, then within the Eoman province of Rhretia, as early as the second century. The remains of the Bavarian ' Hochacker ' are described as running un- interruptedly for sometimes a kilometre and more, i.e. five times the length of the English furlong. And a Roman road with milestones, dating as early as a.d. 201, in one place runs across these long fur- rows in a way which seems to prove that they were older than the road.1 The Professor Meitzen argues from this fact that these ''hocIi-™ 'Hochacker' with long furrows are pre-German acker' ami [n these districts, and in the absence of evidence of their long ' furrows, their Celtic origin he inclines to attribute them to the husbandry of officials or contractors on the imperial waste lands, who had at their command hundreds of slaves and heavy plough teams. This may be the solution of the puzzling question of the origin of the Bavarian ' Hochacker,' but the presence of the team of eight oxen in Wales and Scotland as well as in England, and the mention of teams of six and eight oxen in the Vedas2 as used by Aryan husbandmen in the East, centuries earlier, makes it possible, if not probable, that the Romans, in this instance as in so many others, adopted and adapted to their purpose a practice which they found already at work, connected perhaps with a heavier soil and a clumsier plough than they were used to south of the Alps.3 1 ' Dcr dlteste Anbau der Deut- I 3 There are two other points 'then' Von A. Meitzen, Jena, 1881. which bear upon the Roman con- 2 Zimuier'a Altindisches Lcbcn, nexion with the acre. p. 237. | (1) If the length of the furrow in England and Germany. 389 V THE HOLDINGS — THE YARD-LAND OR HUB. We now pass from the strips to the holdings. The typical English holding of a serf in the open fields was the yard-land of normally thirty acres (ten Chap. X. was to be increased, it would be na- tural to jump from one well-known measure to anotber. Tbe stadium, or lengtb of tbe foot race, was one- eigbtb of a mile, and was com- posed of ten of tbe Greek afijia. The ' furlong ' is also tbe one-eigbtb of a mile, and contains ten chains. But tbe stadium contaiued 625 Roman feet or 600 Greek feet — about 607 English statute feet. How does this comport witb its containing 40 rods ? The fact is, tbe rod varied in different provinces, and the Romans adopted probably the rod of the country in measuring tbe acre. ' Perticas autem juxta loca vel crassitudinem terrarum, prout provincialibus placuit videmus esse dispositas,quasdam decimpedas, quibusdam duos additos pedes, ali- quas vero xv. vel x. et vii. pedum diffinitas.' — Pauca de Mensuris, Grom. Vet., Lachmann, &c, p. 371. Forty rods of 10 cubits, or 15 feet eacb, would equal the 600 feet of the Greek stadium. In fact, the Englisb statute furlong is based upon a rod of 16i feet. There is also tbe further fact that the later Agrimensores expressly mention a ' stadialis ager of 625 feet ' (Lach- mann, Isodorus, p. 368 ; De Men- suris excerpta, p. 372). So that it Beems to be clear that the stadium, like tbe furlong, was used not only in measuring distances, but also in tbe division of fields. (2) We have seen that the acre strips in England were often called ' balks,' because of tbe ridge of un- broken turf by which they were divided the one from the other. We have further seen that tbe word ' balk ' in Welsh and in Englisb was appUed to tbe pieces of turf left unplougbed between tbe furrows by careless ploughing. There is a Vedic word which has the same meaning. The Latin word ' scamnum ' had precisely this meaning, and also it was applied by tbe Agrimensores to a piece of land broader than it3 length. The ' scamnum ' of tho Roman ' castrum ' was the strip 600 feet long and 50 to 80 feet broad — nearly the shape of tho Englisb and Bavarian • acre ' — set apart for the ' legati ' and ' tribunes.' Tbe fields in a conquered district, instead of being allotted in squares by ' centuriation,' were divided into ' scamna' and ' striga;' and the fields thus divided into pieces broader than their length were called ' agri scamnati,' while those divided into pieces longer than their breadth were called ' agristrigati.' Lengtb was throughout reckoned from north to south ; breadth from east to west. Frontinus states that the 390 The Open- Field System Chap. x. scattered acres in each of the three fields), to which an outfit of two oxen was assigned as ' setene ' or ' stuht,' and which descended from one generation to another as a complete indivisible whole. The German word for the yard-land is hof or hub ; in its oldest form huoba, huba, hova.1 And Aventinus, writing early in the sixteenth century of the holdings in Bavaria in the thirteenth century, distinguishes the hof as the holding belonging to a quadriga, or yoke of four oxen, taxed at sixty * asses,' from the hub or holding of the biga or yoke of two oxen, and taxed The hub or yard- land. ' arva publica ' in the provinces were cultivated ' more antiquo ' on this method of the ' ager per strigas et per scamna divisus et assignatus," whilst the fields of the 'colonial of Roman citizens or soldiers planted in the conquered districts were ' centuriated.' See Frontinus, lib. i. p. 2, and fig. 3 in the plates, and also fig. 199 ; and see Rudorff's ob- servations, ii. 290-298. The whole matter is, however, very obscure, and it is difficult to identify the ' ager scamnatus ' with the Romano- German open fields. Frontinus was probably not specially ac- quainted with the latter. 1 The meaning of ' hub ' is perhaps simply 'a holding,' from ' haben.' The term ' yard-land,' or ' gyrd- landes,' seems to be simply the holding measured out by the ' gyrd,' or rod ; just as gyrd also means a 'rood.' Compare the 'vergee' of Normandy. The Roman ' pertica ' was the typical rod or pole used by the AgTimensores, and on account of its use in assigning lands to the mem- bers of a colony, it is sometimes represented on medals by the side of the augurial plough. By trans- ference, the whole area of land measured out and assigned to a colony was known to the Agri- mensores as its 'pertica' (Lach- mann, Frontinus, pp. 20 and 26; Hyginus, p. 117 ; Siculus Flaccus, p. 159 ; Isodorus, p. 369). The Latin 'virga,' used in later times instead of 'pertica' for the measuring rod, followed the same law of transference with still closer likeness to the Saxon ' gyrd.' Both 'virga' and 'gyrd' = a rod and a measure. Both ' virga terrse ' and ' gyrd landes ' = (1) the rood, and (2) the normal holding — the virgate or yard-land. The word ' virgate, or ' virgada,' was used in Brittany as well as in England. In the Cartulaire de Itedon it is, however, evidently the equivalent of the Welsh 'Randir.' See the twelve references to the word ' virgada ' in the index of the Cartulary. in England and German)/. 393 at thirty * asses.' 1 If the tax in this case were one Ohap.x. ' as ' per acre, then the hof contained sixty acres, and the hub thirty acres. So that, as in the yard land, ten acres in each field would go under the three field system to the pair of oxen. The hub of thirty morgen seems to have been the wide pre- typical holding of the serf over a very wide area, JjJ j according to the earliest records. Whilst as a rule thir,v """"• ° gen in absent from North Germany, Dr. Landau traces it in Middle Lower Saxony, in Engern, in Thuringia, in Grapfeld, Germany. in Hesse, on the Middle Ehine and the Moselle, in the old Niederlahngau, Eheingau, Wormsgau, Lob- dengau and Spiergau, in Elsass, in Swabia, and in Bavaria.2 The double huf of sixty morgen also occurs on the Weser and the Ehine in Lower Saxony and in Bavaria.3 The word ' huf first occurs in a document of a.d. 474.4 The passage in the Bavarian laws of the seventh century, already referred to, declaring the tithe to be ' three modii from every thirty ' modii — or one ' lawful andecena' from each ten that, in the typical case taken, ' a man has ' — would seem to suggest that ten andecence or acre strips in each field (or thirty in all) was a typical holding, whilst the use of the Eoman rod of ten feet points to a Eoman influence. Further, the fact of the prevalence of the double and single huf or hub of sixty and thirty acres over so large an area once Eoman province, irresistibly suggests a connexion with the double and single yoke 1 Du Cange, under ' Huba.' I 4 In the will of Perpetuus. 2 Landau, p. 86. 3 Id -?-8. J Meitzen, Auxbrdtung, &c, p. 14. 392 The Open-Field System Chap. X. The double ' hub ' of 6ixty mor- gen. The outfit of oxen. of oxen given as outfit to the Roman veteran, with such an allowance of seed as to make it probable, as we have seen, that the double yoke received normally fifty or sixty jugera, and the single yoke twenty-five or thirty jugera. It is worth remembering, further, that in the Bava- rian law before quoted, limiting the week-work of the servi on the ecclesiastical estates to three days a week, an exception is made allowing unlimited week-work to be demanded from servi who had been supplied with their outfit of oxen de novo by their lord. So that there is a chain of evidence as to the system of supplying the holders of ' yard-lands,' ' huben,' and ' yokes,' with an outfit of oxen, of which the Kelso ' stuht,' the Saxon ' setene,' the outfit of the servus under this Bavarian law, and that of the Roman veteran, are finks.1 It is hardly needful to repeat that it does not follow from this that the system of allotting about thirty acres (varying in size with the locality) to the pair of oxen was a Roman invention. The clear fact is that it was a system followed in Roman provinces under the later empire, as well as in Germany and England afterwards ; and, as the holding of thirty acres was found to be the allotment to each ' tate ' or household under the Irish tribal system, it may possibly have had an earlier origin and a wider prevalence than the period or extent of Roman rule. The scattering of the strips composing a yard- tripscom- land, or hub, over the open fields should also be once posing t L them. more mentioned in comparing the two. It was not 1 The practice was long continued in what was called the 'steel bow tenancy ' of later times. Bo tt( ring of the in England and Germany. o'Jo confined to the ' yard-land ' or ' hub.' It arose, as we Chap. x. have seen, in Wales, from the practice of joint plough- ing, and was the result of the method of dividing the joint produce, probably elsewhere also, under the tribal system. It is the method of securing a fair division of common land in Scotland and Ireland and Palestine to this day, no less than under the English and German three-field system. And the remarkable passage from Siculus Flaccus has been quoted, which so clearly describes a similar scattered ownership, resulting probably from joint agriculture carried on by ' vicini,' as often to be met with in his time on Roman ground. This passage proves that the Roman holding (like the Saxon yard-land and the German hub) might be composed of a bundle of scattered pieces ; but this scattering was too widely spread from India to Ireland for it to be, in any sense, distinc- tively Roman. It perhaps resulted, as we have seen, from the heaviness of the soil or the clumsiness of the plough, and the necessity of co-operation between free or semi-servile tenants, in order to produce a plough team of the requisite strength according to the cus- tom of the country ; and this necessity probably arose most often in the provinces north of the Alps. Another point distinctive of the ' yard-land ' and The single the ' hub ' was the absence of division among heirs, J© thT" the single succession, the indivisibility of the bundle '(y^d'-Hnd of scattered strips in the holding. And this finds its land: nearest likeness perhaps-, as we have seen, in the probably single succession of the semi-servile holder, or mere ' usufructuarius ' under Roman law, and especially under the semi-military rule of the border provinces. 194 The Open-Field System Chap X. The Saxon ' Gebur ' and the High Ger- man •Gipur. Lastly, before leaving the comparison between the yard-land and hub it may be asked why the serf who held it in England was called a Gebur. The word villanus of the Domesday Survey is associated with other words, such as villicus, villata, ville?iage, all connected with serfdom, and all traceable through Romance dialects to the Roman ' villa.1 But the Anglo-Saxon word was ' Gebur.' It was the Gebars who were holders of yard-lands. We trace this word Gebur in High German dia lects. We find it in use in the High German trans- lation of the laws of the Alamanni, called the ' Speculi Suevici,' where free men are divided into three classes : — (1) The ' semperfrien ' = lords with vassals under them. (2) The ' mittlerfrien ' = the men or vassals of the lords. (3) The ' geburen ' = liberi incolce, or ' fri-lant- ssezzen' [i.e. not slaves].1 The word ' gebur ' or ' gipur ' occurs also in the High German of Otfried's ' Paraphrase of the Gos- pels,'2 of the ninth century, and in the Alamannic dialect of Notger's Psalms for vicinus.8 Here, again, the South German connexion seems to be the nearest to the Anglo-Saxon. 1 Juris Prov. Alemann. c. 2, Schilteri editio. 3 Ot.fri.Ml, v. 4, 80; ii. 14,215. 3 Notger, Psalm xliii. 14; lxxviii. 4 ; brix. 7. in England and Germany 395 Chap. X VI. THE HIDE, THE HOP, AND THE CENTUETA. From the yard-land, or hub, the holding of a serf, The 'hide, we may pass to the typical holding of the full free i£2£ landholder, connected in England with the full team and ',hi* ° wise. of eight oxen. The Saxon hide, or the fawilia of Bede, was Latin- ised in Saxon charters into 'casatum.' We have found in the St. Gall charters the word ' casa ' used for the homestead. The present Eomanish word for house is ' casa' and for the verb ' to dwell,' ' casar* And there is the Italian word ' casata' still meaning a family. Thus the connexion between the * familia ' of Bede and the ' casatum ' of the charters is natural Bede wrote more classical Latin than the ecclesiastical scribes in the charters. The hide was the holding of a family.1 Hence it was sometimes, like the yard- land or holding of a servile family, called a ' hiwisc,' which was Anglo-Saxon, and also High German for family.2 But the Saxon hide, also, was translated into ploughland or carucate, corresponding with the full team of eight oxen. Generally in Kent, and sometimes in Sussex, Tiie'ca™ Berks, and Essex, we found in addition to or instead lun?,' or"" of the hide or carucate, or ' terra unius aratri,' solins, sullungs, or swullungs — the land pertaining to &lsuhl,' the Anglo-Saxon word for plough. This word is plough- land. 1 Compare Cod. Theod. IX. tit. xlii. 7 : ' Quot mancipia in pnediis occupatis . . . quot sint casarii vel coloni, &c. 2 See Ancient Laws of Emjland., Thorpe, p. 79, under wcr-gilds, s. vii., where ' hiwisc ' = ' hide.' See also ' hiwisJci,' 'hiwisehi,' for familia} in ' St. Paules Glossen,' sixth or seventh century. Braune's Althoch- deutsches Lesebuch, p. 4. 396 The Open-Field System Chap. X. Tbe 'gioc,' or'jugum.' surely of Roman rather lhan of German origin. The Piedmontese ' sloira,' and the Lombardic ' sciloira,' and the Old French ' sillec-ire,' are surely allied to the Romanish ' suilgj and the Latin ' sulcus.' Again, in Kent the quarter of a ' sulung ' (answer- ing to the yard-land or virgate of other parts) is called in the early charters a ' gioc,' ' ioclet,' or * iochlet,' l i.e. a yoke or small-yoke of land. We have seen in the St. Gall charters, also, mention of ' juchs ' or 'jochs,' which, however, were apparently jugera. This word gioc is surely allied to the Italian ' giogo,' and the Latin jugum. The 'hide' Here, then, we have the hide the typical holding taria^the of a free family, as the centuria was under Roman hoidCingfrec law- A free Saxon thane might hold many hides, and so might and did the lord of a Roman villa hold more than one ' centuria ' within its bounds. Still Columella took as his type of a Roman farm the ' centuria ' of 200 acres,2 and calculated how much seed, how many oxen, how many opera, or day-works of slaves, or * coloni ' were required to till it. The hide, double or single, was also a land measure, and contained eight or four yard-lands, and so also was the ' centu- ria ' a land measure divisible into eight normal hold- ings allotted with single yokes. Both also became, as we have seen, units of assessment. But in England the hide was the unit. Under the Roman system of taxation the jugum was the unit. 1 B. M. Ancient Charters, ii. Cotton MS. Aug. ii. 42, a.d. 837. The Welsh short yoke was that of two oxen, i.e. a fourth part of the full plough team. 3 Columella, ii. 12. The calcu- lation in this passage, how many opera or day-works a farm requires shows striking resemblance to tho later manorial gystem. hidjition' and the in England and Germany. 397 This variation, however, confirms the connexion. Chap. x. The Eoman jugum, or yoke of two oxen, made a " complete plough. Nothing less than the hide was the complete holding in England, because a team of eight oxen was required for English ploughing The yard-land was only a fractional holding, incom- plete for purposes of ploughing without co-operation. Hence it would seem that the complete plough was really the unit in both cases. How closely the English hidation followed the The Saxon lines of the Eoman 'jugatio ' has already been seen When to the many resemblances of the hide to the Eoman 'centuria,' and of the 'jugum' to the virgate, re- 'jugat10- garded as units of assessment, are now added the other connecting links found in this chapter, in things, in figures, and in words, between the Saxon open- field system, and that of the districts of Upper Germany, so long under Roman rule, the English hidation may well be suspected to go back to Eoman times, and to be possibly a survival of the Eoman jugation. When Henry of Huntingdon, in describing the Domesday Survey, instead of saying that inquiry was made how many hides and how many virgates there were, uses the words ' quot jugata et quot virgata terrce,' l he at any rate used the exact words which describe what in the Codex Theodosianus is spoken of as taxation 'per juga- tionem.'2 Not, as already said, that the Eomans intro- duced into Britain the division of land according to plough teams, and the number of oxen contributed 1 Du Cange, ' Jugatuin.' I 2 See Marquardt, ii. 226 n. 398 The Open-Field System chap. x. to the plough team. It would grow, as we have seen, naturally out of tribal arrangements whenever the tribes settled and became agricultural, instead of wandering about with their herds of cattle. It was found in Wales and Ireland and Scotland, in Bohemia, apparently in Slavonic districts also and further east.1 It is much more likely that the Eomans, according to their usual custom, adopted a barbarian usage and seized upon an existing and obvious unit as the basis of provincial taxation. The Frisian tribute of hides was perhaps an ex- ample of this. The Frisians were a pastoral people, and a hide for every so many oxen was as ready a mode of assessing the tribute as counting the plough teams would be in an agricultural district. The word ' hide,' which still baffles all attempts to explain its origin, may possibly have had reference to a similar tribute. Roman Even in England it does not follow that it was in its to Frisk origin connected with the plough team. Its real hides1" equivalent was the familia, or casatum — the land of a family — and in pastoral districts of England and Wales the Eoman tribute may possibly have been, if not a hide from each plough team, a hide from every family holding cattle ; just as in A.D. 1175 Henry II. bound his Irish vassal, Eoderic O'Connor, to pay annually ' de singulis animalibus decimum corium placabile mercatofibus ' — perhaps a tenth of the hides he himself received as tribute from his own tribes- men.2 The supposition of such an origin of the con- nexion of the word ' hide ' with the ' land of a family : 1 Sfeitzen, Ausbrcitung, pp. 21 I 2 Food. vol. i. p. 31. Robertson's tnd 33. I Historical Essays, p. 1D3. in England and < 7er many. 399 or of a plough team is mere conjecture ; but the fact Chap. x. of the connexion is clear. All these liner things, the hide, the hiwisce, and the milling, and their sub- division the yard-land, were the units of British ' nidation,' just as the centuria and the jugum were the units of the Eoman 'jugatio.' VII. THE GAFOL AND GAPOL-TRTH. Passing now to the serfdom and the services under which the ' yard-lands ' and the ' huben ' were held, it may at least be said that their practical identity suggests a common origin. We learned from the Rectitudines and from the Laws of Ine, to make a distinction between the two component parts of the obligations of the ' gcbur ' in respect of his yard-land. There was (1) the gafol, and (2) the week- worh. The gafol was found to be a semi-servile incident to the yard-land. The week-work was the most servile one. A man otherwise free and possessing a homestead already, could, under the laws of Ine, hire a yard- land of demesne land and pay gafol for it, without in- curring liability to week-work. But if the lord found for him both the yard-land and the homestead, then he was a complete ' gebur ' or * villanus,' and must do week-work also. Taking the gafol first, and descending to details, The Saxon it was found to be complex — i.e. it included gafol and'gafol- and gafol-yrth. 400 The Open-Field System Chap. X. Possible connexion with Roman tributunt. The gafol of the ' gebur,' as stated in the Rec- titudines, was this : — For gafol -proper : — (10c?. at Michaelmas. 23sestersofbeer 1 At Martinmas# 2 fowls J 1 lamb at Easter, or 2d. For gafolyrth: — the ploughing of 3 acres, and sowing of it from the ' gebur's ' own barn. Comparing the gafol proper with the census of the St. Gall charters, and the tribute of the ' servi ' of the Church under the Alamannic laws of a.d. 622, the resemblance was found to be remarkably close. The tribute of the ' servi ' of the Church was thus stated in the latter : — 15 siclse of beer. A sound spring pig. 2 modia of bread. 5 fowls. 20 eggs. As regards this tribute in kind the likeness is obvious, and it further so closely resembles the food- rent of the Welsh free tribesmen as to suggest that it may have been a survival of ancient tribal dues — a suggestion which the word ' gafol ' itself confirms. It seems to be connected with the Abgabe, or food gifts of the German tribesmen.1 We saw that the word gafol was the equivalent of tributum in the Saxon translation of the Gospels. 1 Does your master pay tribute ? ' ' Gylt he gafol? ' Further, the French evidence seems to show 1 Diez, p. 150. ' Gabella,1 For- j Italian ' gabellan,' to tax, from v. b. tuguese, Spanish, and Provencal gifan, Goth, giban. »«tax. French gabellc = sal I -tax. I in England and Germany. 401 that the later manorial payments in kind and services Chap, x. upon Frankish manors were, to some extent, a sur- vival of the old Eoman exactions in Gaul.1 And the tribute of the Alamannic and Bavarian laws, and of the St. Gall and other charters, was found to be equally clearly a survival of the Eoman tributura in the German province of Rhastia and the ' Agri Decumates.' But in addition to the ' gafol ' in kind, there was The Saxon the gafol-yrth ; and of this also we found in the St. yftV" and Gall charters numerous examples. In the many cases «tit^?mai1 where the owner of homesteads and land surrendered r.iu,m'or tithe-rent. them to the Abbey, and henceforth paid tribute to the Abbey, there was not only the tribute in kind, but also the ploughing of so many acres, sometimes of one, sometimes of two, and sometimes of one in each zelga or field — to be ploughed, and reaped, and carried by the tenant. The combination of the dues in hind and in ploughing, with sometimes other services, made up the tributura in servitium — i.e. the gafol of the tributarius, or i gafol-g elder,' which he paid under the Alamannic laws to his lord, the latter thenceforth paying the public tributum for the land to the State. Perhaps we may go one step further. From the remarkable resemblance of the English Not always gafol-yrth and its South German equivalent the in- ference was drawn that this peculiar rent taken in the form of the ploughing of a definite number of acres, was probably a survival of the Roman tenths, 1 See Guerard's Polyptique (Tlr- | M. Vuitry's Etudes sur U Rfyime minon, i. chap. viii. Also Lehuerou's i Financier de la France, Premiere Institut. Meroving. liv. ii. c. 1 ; and I Etude. D D 402 The Open-Field System Chap. x. or other proportion of produce claimed as rent from settlers on the ager publicus of the ' Agri Decumates,' and of Rhsetia. Indications were found that the agrarium, or tenth of the arable produce, may have been taken in actual acres like the Saxon tithes — i.e. in the produce of so many ' andecena?,' the ploughing, sowing, reaping, and garnering of which were done by the tenant. But under Eoman usage the proportion taken was not always a tenth. The State rent was nominally a tithe. But it was in fact so extortion ately gathered as sometimes in Sicily to treble the tithe.1 Hyginus also says that the ' vectigal,' or tax, was taken in some provinces in a certain part of the crop, in some a fifth, in others a seventh.2 In Italy the dues from the Agri Medietates perhaps surviving in the later metayer system, amounted sometimes to one-half. At any rate, the proportion varied. Now the Saxon * gafol-yrth ' of the yard-land of thirty acres seems, according to the ' Rectitudines,' as we have seen, to have been the produce of three acres in the wheat-field, ploughed by the 'gebur' and sown with seed from his own barn. For it will be remem- bered that the first season after the yard-land was given there was to be no gafol, and in the gebur's outfit only seven out of the ten acres in the wheat-field 1 So Cicero asserted against Verres. The seed, he argued, was fairly to he taken at ahout a me- dimnus to each jugerum. Eight nie- dimni of corn per acre would he a good crop ; ten would be the out- Blde thai under all possible favour of the pods the jugerum could yield. Therefore the tithe might not to exceed at the highest estimate one medinmus per jugerum. But the tax-gather had taken three medimni per jugerum, and so by extortion had trebled the tithes. — In Verrem, act. ii. lib. iii. c. 47, 48, 49. 2 Ilygini de Limit ibus Const i- tuendis, p. 204. in England and Germany. 403 were to be handed over to him already sown, leaving Chap. x. tnree unsown, i.e. probably the three which other- wise he must have sown for the gafol-yrth due to his lord. As ten acres of the yard-land were pro- bably always in fallow, three acres of wheat was a heavier gafol-yrth than a fairly gathered tithe would have been. It would therefore seem probable that as the ' gafol ' in kind may be traced back to the Roman tributurn, itself perhaps a survival of the tribal food- rents of the conquered provinces, so the ' gafol-yrth ' may be traced back to the Roman decuma?, or other proportion of the crop due by way of land-tax or rent to the State. And this survival of the complex tribute or gafol, made up of its two separate elements, from Roman to Saxon times, becomes all the more striking when it is considered also that it was due from a normal holding with an outfit of a pair of oxen, both in the case of the Saxon yard-land and of the Roman veteran's allotment. VIII. THE BOON-WORK AND WEEK- WORK OP THE SERF. Proceeding still further, besides the gafol and The Saxon gafol-yrth, and yet distinct from the week-work, was ^b0X"and the liabilitv of the serfs on the Saxon manor to cer- ^ Bom*" •J , . * sordida tain boon-work or services ad preces ; sometimes in munera.' ploughing or reaping a certain number of acres of the lord's demesne land in return for grass land or other advantages, or without any special equivalent; sometimes in going errands or carrying goods to market or otherwise, generally known as averagium. 1 He shall land-gafol pay, and shall ridan and averian D D 2 404 The Open-Field System Crap. x. ' and lade Icedan ' for his lord. So this boon-work in addition to ' gafol ' is described in the ' Rectitudines.' The various kinds of manorial ' averagium ' were, as we have seen, often called in mediaeval Latin angaria?, a going on errands or postal service ; para- veredi, or packhorse services ; and carroperce, or waggon services. We have seen how these services resembled the angaria? and the parangarioz and paraveredi, which were included among the ' sordida munera ' or ' obse- quies ' of the Theodosian Code in force in Rhsetia in the fourth century, found still surviving, though transformed into manorial services, in the same dis- tricts in the seventh century and afterwards, under the Bavarian laws and in the monastic charters. The carrying services and other boon-work on Saxon manors closely resembled those of the Frankish charters and the Bavarian laws, and probably therefore shared their Roman origin. The week- There remains to complete the serfdom its most work of the serviie incident, the week-work — that survival of the originally unrestricted claim of the lord of the Eoman villa to his slave's labour which, limited, as we have seen, according to the evidence of the Alamannic laws, under the influence of Christian humanity by the monks or clergy, in respect of the servi on their estates, to three days a week, became the mediaeval triduanum servitium. The words of the Alamannic law are wortli re-quoting. ' Servi diniitliiiin partem sibi et dimidiam in dominico arativum red- dant. Et. si super hcec est, SICUT BEKVJ BCOLESIABTIOl ita faciunt,tres diet sibi et trcs in dominico.' Let servi do plough service, half for themselves and half in demesne. And if there be any further [service] let them work as the servi of the Church, three days for themselves, and three in demesne. in England and Germany. 405 This remarkable passage in the Alamannic code Chap.X of a.d. 622 seems to be the earliest version extant of the Magna Charta of the agricultural servus, who thus early upon ecclesiastical estates was transformed from a slave into a serf. IX. THE CREATION OF SERFS AND THE GROWTH OP SERFDOM. There is yet another point in which the corre Serfdom spondence between British and Continental usages is from worth remarking. below!""1 The community in serfdom on a lord's estate was both by Saxon and Continental usage recruited from above and from below. Free men from above, by voluntary arrangement Free-men with a lord, could and did descend into serfdom. serfs. The Saxon free tenant could, by free contract, arrange to take a yard-land, and if he were already provided with a homestead and oxen, he became a ' gafol-gelder,' or tributarius of his lord, without in- curring the liability to the more servile ' week-work,' just as was the case when, under the Alamannic laws, free men made surrender of their holdings to the Abbey of St. Gall. In both cases, as we saw, week- work was added if the lord found the homestead and the outfit. On the other hand, whenever a lord provided his slaves be- come serfs slave with an outfit of oxen, and gave him a part in the ploughing, he rose out of slavery into serfdom. To speak more correctly, he rose into that middle class of tenants who, by whatever name they were 406 The Open-Field System Chap. X. Grades in serfdom during the period of transition. • Tribu- tarii,' ' coloni,' and ' liti.' Slaves made into these. The laets of the laws of Ethel- bert. known at first, afterwards became confounded together in the ranks of mediawal serfdom. There were, in fact, grades in the community in serfdom not only like those of the Saxon geburs and cottiers, but also corresponding to the historical origin of the serfs. Thus, as we have seen in the ' Polyptique dTrminon ' and in many other cartularies and surveys of monastic estates, there are coloni and liti among the serfs, names bearing witness to the historical origin of the serfs, though the difference between them had all but vanished. There is a passage in the Eipuarian laws, ' If any one shall make his slave into a " tributarius," or a " litus," &c.' l The ' lidus ' of the ' Lex Salica ' was under a lordship, and classed with ' servi,' and by a legal process he could be set free.2 We have noticed the passage in the Theodosian Code which speaks of ' coloni ' and ' tributarii ' on British estates, and also the mention by Ammianus Marcellinus of ' tributarii' in Britain. We have noticed also the three grades of ' la3ts,' the only class of tenants mentioned in the laws of Ethelbert. Now, whatever doubt there might be as to what were the ' lsets ' on Kentish ' hams ' and ' tuns ' in the sixth century, if they stood alone as isolated pheno- mena ; taken together with the ' tributarii ' and ' coloni ' and 'Hti' on Continental manors, there can be hardly any doubt that they belonged to the same middle 1 Tit. lxii. * Lex Salica, tit. xxxviii. ' De homicidiis servoi-um et ancillarum. v. Si quis homo ingenuus lidum alienum expoliaveiit,' &c. See also tit. xvi. See also tit. xxvi. ' De libertis extra consilium Domini sui diwissis ' (xxxv. ' De libertis di- missis iDgenuis '). ' Si quis alienum Icetum ante rege per dinarium m- yenuum demiserit,' &c. in England and Germany. 407 class of semi-servile tenants to which allusion has Chap. x. been made. Their presence on the manorial ' hams ' SurTi^u and 'tuns' of England revealed in the earliest his- "J^ of torical record after the Saxon Conquest, taken in toanaition . , , l in Britain. connexion with the many other points brought together in this chapter, makes the inference very strong indeed that they, like the 'coloni,' ' tributarii,' and 'liti' on Continental manors, were a survival from that period of transition from Eoman to German rule, during which the names of the various classes of semi-servile tenants, afterwards merged in the common status of media3val serfdom, still preserved traces of their origin. X. THE CONFUSION IN THE STATUS OF THE TENANTS ON ENGLISH AND GERMAN MANORS. In one sense both in England and Germany the Serfs free holders of the ' yard-lands ' and ' huben,' though serfs, unfree m were free. As regards their lords they were serfs. tenuxe- As regards the slaves they were free. In this respect they resembled very closely the Eoman ' coloni ' on a private villa. On the Frankish manors there were two classes of Grades of manorial these semi-servile tenants — ' mansi ingenuiles, who tenant. were free from the ' week-work ; ' and • mansi serviles,' from whom ' week-work ' was due. Probably owing to the nature of the Saxon conquest the first of these classes seems to have practically become absorbed in the other. The laws of Ine, indeed, mention the gafol- gelder who, providing his own homestead, did not become liable to ' week-work ' like the ' gebur.' But 408 The Open-Field System Chap. x. in the statements of the services on the manors of Hisseburne and Tidenham no such class appears. In the ' Eectitudines ' there is no class mentioned be- tween the thane, who is lord of the manor, and the 1 geneats ' — i.e. the ' gebur ' and the ' cotsetl.' In the Domesday Survey there are no tenants above the villain, as a general rule, except in the Danish dis- tricts, where the ' Sochmanni ' and the ' liberi ho- mines ' appear. Comparing the status of English and German holders of ' yard-lands ' and ' huben,' the resemblances are remarkable, and they confirm the suggestion of a common origin. Both are ' adscript! glebse.' In both cases there is the absence of division among heirs. In both the succession is single, and in theory at the will of the lord. In both there are the gafol and customary services. In both cases there is the distinction in grade of serfdom between the man who freely becomes the holder of a yard-land or hub by his own surrender, or by voluntary submission to the semi-servile tenure, and the man who is a nativus or born serf. In both cases there is a regular contribution to- wards military service or the equipment of a soldier, and apparently no bar in status from actual service, though doubtless in a semi-menial position. The con- In all these points we have noticed strong analogies haps between the semi-free and semi-servile conditions of MinVvid the various classes of tenants on Eoman villas, and on the Eoman public lands, which we have spoken of as provincia] the great provincial manor of the Eoman Empire. conditions. «-,,-,.. , , And the natural inference seems to be, that even the curious confusion of the free and servile status may in England and Germany. 409 be, in part, a survival of the like confusion in the Ohap. x. Eoman provinces. It naturally grew up under the semi-military rule of the German provinces, and pos- sibly in Britain also ; whilst the Saxon conquest of the latter, no doubt, as we have said, tended to reduce the confusion into something like simplicity by fusing together classes of semi-servile tenants of various historical origins, in the one common class of the later ' geneats ' or ' villani,' in whose status the old confu- sion, however, survived. XL RESULT OF THE COMPARISON. To sum up the result of the comparison made in strong evi- this chapter between the English and the Continental connexion open-field system and serfdom. The English and BrifcuTand South-German systems at the time of the earliest Qeer^th records in the seventh century were to all intents provinces . during and purposes apparently identical. Roman The mediaeval serf, judging from the evidence of serfdom his gafol and services, seems to have been the com- open-field pound product of survivals from three separate system tr r r which was ancient conditions, gradually, during Eoman pro- its shell. vincial rule and under the influence of barbarian conquest, confused and blended into one, viz. those of the slave on the Eoman villa, of the colonus or other semi-servile and mostly barbarian tenants on the Eoman villa or public lands, and of the slave of the German tribesman, who to the eyes of Tacitus was so very much like a Eoman colonus. That peculiar form of the open-field system, which was the shell of serfdom both in England and on the Continent, also connects itself in Germany 110 The Open- Field System Chap. x. distinctly with the Romano-German provinces, whilst at the same time conspicuously absent from the less Romanised districts of Northern Germany. It seems therefore inconceivable that the three- field system and the serfdom of early Anglo-Saxon records can have been an altogether new importation from North Germany, where it did not exist, into Britain, where it probably had long existed under Eoman rule. The Saxon We have already quoted the strong conclusion of from ifanssen that the Anglo-Saxon invaders and their Germany Frisian Low-German and Jutish companions could not hardly introduce into England a system to which they were the ihree- not accustomed at home. It must be admitted that Byshm the conspicuous absence of the three-field system iaid.Eng" fr°m tne North of Germany does not, however, absolutely dispose of the possibility that the system was imported into England from those districts ol Middle Germany reaching from Westphalia to Thu- ringia, where the system undoubtedly existed. It is at least possible that the invaders of England may have proceeded from thence rather than as commonly supposed, from the regions on the northern coast. But if it be possible that a system of agriculture imply- ing long-continued settlement, and containing within it numerous survivals of Eoman elements, could be imported by pirates and the emigrants following in their wake, the possibility itself implies that the immigrants had themselves previously submitted to long-continued Roman influences. On the whole we may adopt as a more likely theory the further suggestion of Hanssen, that if the three-field system was imported at all into England, in England and Germany. 411 the most likely time for its importation was that same Chap, x. period of Eoman occupation during which he con- siders that it came into use in the Roman provinces of Germany.1 Nor is there anything inconsistent with this The it '1-r-iTi Romans suggestion in the irregular lines of the English open probably fields and their divisions, so different from those ihe^hree- produced by the rectangular centuriation of Roman ^™e0rf°" ' Agrimensores.' We must not forget that the open croPa- field system in its simpler forms was almost certainly pre-Roman in Britain as elsewhere ; so that what the Romans added to transform it into the manorial three-field system probably was rather the three-course rotation of crops, the strengthening of the manorial element on British estates, and the methods of taxation by 'jugation,' than any radical alteration in the land-divisions or in the system of co-operative ploughing.2 1 ' Soil die Dreifelderwirthschaft nach England importirt sein, so bliebe wohl nur iibrig an die Periode der romischen Okkupation zu denken, wie ich eine ahnliche Vermuthung, die sich freilich aucb nicht weiter begriinden lasst, fiir Deutschland ausgesprochen habe (p. 153). Einfacher ist es den selbsts'andigen Ursprung derDrei- felderwirthschaft in ganz versckie- denenen Landernals einen auf einer gewissen wirtbschaftlicben Kultur- stufe wie von selber eintretenden Fortscbritt sich zu denken ' (Agrar- hist. Abhand. p. 497). * Mr. Coote has adduced ap- parently clear evidence of centuri- ation in many parts of England ; but we have already seen that only the land actually assigned to the soldiers of a colonia was centuriated. There would seem to be no reason to suppose that they disturbed the generally existing open fields still cultivated by the conquered popu- lation. CHAPTER XI. RESULT OF THE EVIDENCE. Chap. XI. The tribal system in Wales and Germany. Co-aration of the on :rly iield bybtem. I. THE METHOD OF THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS. It may perhaps now be possible to sum up the evidence, without pretending to more certainty in the conclusion than the condition of the question warrants. At the two extreme limits of our subject we have found, on one side, the tribal system of Wales and Ireland, and, on the other side, the German tribal system. In the earliest stage of these systems they were seemingly alike, both in the nomadic habits of the tribes, and the shifting about of the households in a tribe from one homestead to another. Sir John Davis describes this shifting as going on in Ireland in his day, and Ccesar describes it as going on in Germany 1,700 years earlier. In both cases, such agriculture as was a necessity even to pastoral tribes was carried on under the open-field system in its simplest form — the ploughing up of new ground each season, which then went back into grass. The Welsh triads speak of it as a The English Settlements. 413 co-aration of portions of the waste. Tacitus describes Cum. xi it in the words, ' Arva per annos mutant, et superest ager.' In neither case, therefore, is there the three-field system, which implies fixed arable fields ploughed again and again in rotation. The three-field system evidently implies the sur- Tho throe- render of the tribal shifting and the submission to ?n0'pdiLy88tem fixed settlement. Further, as wherever we can exa- fl ,' settle- mine the three-field system we find the mass of the ment? and holdings to have been fixed bundles, called yard-lands crops,0" or huben — bundles retaining the same contents from ^bab?™ generation to generation — it seems to follow either rJJjJJ that the tribal division of holdings among heirs, which rule- The was the mark of free holdings, had ceased, or that or hub the three-field system was from the first the shell of semie* a community in serfdom. tenants. The geographical distribution of the three-field system — mainly within the old Eoman provinces and in the Suevic districts along their borders — makes it almost certain that, in Germany, Roman rule was the influence which enforced the settlement, and introduced, with other improvements in agriculture, such as the vine culture, a fixed rotation of crops. In Wales the necessity for settlement did not generally produce the three-field system with holdings in yard-lands,1 because, as the Welsh tribesmen, though they may have had household slaves, as a rule held no taeogs or prsedial slaves, it produced no serfdom. But under the German tribal system, even in the time of Tacitus, the tribesmen in the sftmi- 1 There are undoubtedly manors I but of later and English intro- and yard-lands in some districts, I duction. 414 Result of the Evidence. Chat. XI. The Roman villa an- other fac- tor and gTev into the manor. Roman and Ger- man ele- ments combined. Both 'ager pnblicns ' nid 'tern regis' manorial. Romanised districts, at all events, already had prsedial slaves. The manorial system, however, was not simply a development from the tribal system of the Germans ; it had evidently a complex origin. A Roman element also seems to have entered into its composition. The Roman villa, to begin with, a slave-worked estate, during the later empire, whether from German influence or not, became still more like a manor by the addition of coloni and other mostly barbarian semi-servile tenants to the slaves. There may have been once free village communities on the ' ager publicus,' but, as we have seen, the man- agement of the public lands under the fiscal officers of the Emperor also tended during the later Empire to become more and more manorial in its character, so much so that the word ' villa ' could apparently some- times be applied to the fiscal district. Whichever of the two factors — Roman or Ger- man— contributed most to the mediaeval manor, the manorial estate became the predominant form of land ownership in what had once been Roman provinces. And the German successors of Roman lords of villas became in their turn manorial lords of manors ; whilst the ' coloni,' ' liti,' and 'tributarii' upon them, wherever they remained upon the same ground, apparently became, with scarcely a visible change, a community of serfs. On the other hand, the fact that the terra regis also was divided under Saxon and Frankish kings into manors probably was the natural result of the growing manorial management of the public lands under the fiscal officers of the Emperor during the later Empire, The English Settlements. 415 quickened or completed after the barbarian conquests. Chap. xi. The fiscal districts seem to have become in fact royal manors, and the free ' coloni,' ' liti,' and ' servi ' upon them appear as manorial tenants of different grades in the earliest grants to the monasteries. The fact that as early as the time of Tacitus, the German chieftains and tribesmen were in their own country lords of serfs, in itself explains the ease with which they assumed the position of lords of manors on the conquest of the provinces. The result of conquest seems thus to have been chiefly a change of lordship, both as regards the private villas and the public lands. The conquered districts seem to have become in a wholesale way practically terra regis. There is no evidence that the modes of agriculture on the one hand or the modes of management on the other hand were materially changed. The conquering king would probably at once put followers of his own into the place of the Eoman fiscal officers. These would become quasi- lords of the royal manors on the terra regis. Then by degrees would naturally arise the process whereby under lavish royal grants manors were handed one after another into the private ownership of churches and monasteries and favourites of the king, thus honey- combing the terra regis with private manors. This seems to have been what happened in the Frankish provinces, and in the Alamannic and Bavarian districts, where the process can be most clearly traced. And the result seems to have been the almost universal prevalence of the manorial system in these districts. Even the towns came to be regarded as in the demesne of the king. And 416 Result of the Evidence. Chap. xi. gradually manorial lordship extended itself over the free tenants as well as over the various semi-servile classes who were afterwards confused together in the general class of serfs. The community of serfs was fed from above and from below. Free ' coloni,' by their own voluntary surrender, and free tribesmen, perhaps upon conquest or gradually by the force of long usage, sank into serfs. Slaves, on the other hand, by their lord's favour, or to meet the needs of agriculture, were supplied with an outfit of oxen and rose out of slavery into serfdom. But what was this serfdom ? It was not simply the old praadial slavery of the Germans of Tacitus. Nor was it merely a continuance of the slavery on the Roman villa, slavery For finally, in the period of transition from Roman by Chrfs- to German lordship, a new moral force entered as a manity" fresh factor in the economic evolution. The silent humanising influence of Christianity seems to have been the power which mitigated the rigour of slavery, and raised the slave on the estates of the Church into the middle status of serfdom, by insisting upon the limitation of his labour to the three days' week- work of the mediaBval serf. Thus, from the point of view alike of the German and the Roman ' servi,' mediceval serfdom, except to the freemen who by their own surrender or by conquest were degraded into it, was a distinct step upward in the economic progress of the masses of the people towards freedom. Applying these results especially to England, we The English Settlements. 1L7 have once more to remember that there was settled Chap- xl agriculture in Belgic Britain before the Roman The pre- invasion : that the fact vouched for by Pliny, that marl oJSSd and manure were ploughed into the fields, is proof gjjdllii that the simplest form of the open-field system — the Welsh co-aration of the waste, and the German shifting every year of the ' arva ' — had already given place to a more settled and organised system, in which the same land remained under tillage year after year. Pliny's description of the marling of the land, however, points rather to the one-field system of Northern Germany than to the three-field system, as that under which the corn was grown which Caesar found ripening on British fields when he first landed on the southern coast.1 In the meantime Roman improvements in agri- Roman m- culture may well have included the introduction into of the the province of Britain of the three-course rotation of crops. The open fields round the villa of the Roman lord, cultivated by his slaves, ' coloni,' ' tribu- tarii,' and ' liti,' may have been first arranged on the three-field system ; and, once established, that system would spread and become general during those cen- turies of Roman occupation in which so much corn was produced and exported from the island. The Roman annonce — founded, perhaps, on the earlier tribal food-rents — were, in Britain, as we know from the ' Agricola ' of Tacitus, taken mostly in corn ; coarse rotation of CXOJ ". 1 The ' one-Jield system ' of per- manent arable must not be confused with the improvement of the early Welsh and Irish ' co-aration of the waste,' by which the land was E E cropped perhaps two or three or four years before it was left to yo back into yrass. This resembles the German Feldyrasrvirthschaft and not the German one-held system. 418 Result of the Evidence. Chap. xi. and the trioutum was probably assessed during the later empire on that system of jugation which was found to be so like to the hidation which prevailed after the Saxon conquest. Conquest Putting aside as exceptional the probably peaceful The in- but a^ best obscure settlements in tribal households, vadersbe- an(j reprardinor conquest as the rule, the economic come lords c & u of hams or evidence seems to supply no solid reason for supposing that the German conquerors acted in Britain in a way widely different from that which they followed on the conquest of Continental Eoman provinces. The conquered territory here as elsewhere probably be- came at first terra regis of the English, Saxon, or Jutish kings. And though there may have been more cases in England than elsewhere of extermination of the old inhabitants, the evidence of the English open-field system seems to show that, taking England as a whole, the continuity between the Eoman and English system of land management was not really broken. The Eoman provincial villa still seems to have remained the typical form of estate ; and the management of the public lands, now terra regis, seems to have pre- served its manorial character. For whenever estates are granted to the Church or monasteries, or to thanes of the king, they seem to be handed over as already existing manors, with their own customs and services fixed by immemorial usage. It is most probable that whenever German con- querors descended upon an already peopled country where agriculture was carried on as it was in Britain, their comparatively small numbers, and still further their own dislike to agricultural pursuits and liking for lordship, and familiarity with servile tenants in The English Settlements. U9 the old country, would induce them to place the Chap.xl conquered people in the position of serfs, as the Germans of Tacitus seem to have done, making them do the agriculture by customary methods. If in any special cases the numbers in the invading hosts were larger than usual, they would probably include the semi-servile dependants of the chieftains and tribesmen. These, placed on the land allotted to their lords, would be serfs in England as they had been at home. At this point, as we have seen, the internal evi- Thoyar.!- ± _ land dence of the open-field system, at the earliest date at this, which it arises, comes to our aid, showing that as a general rule it was the shell, not of household com- munities of tribesmen doing their own ploughing like the Welsh tribesmen by co-aration, but of serfs doing the ploughing under an over-lordship. Here the English evidence points in precisely the same direction as the Continental. For, as so often repeated, the prevalence, as far back as the earliest records, of yard-lands and huben, handed down so generally, and evidently by long immemorial custom, as indivisible bundles from one generation to another, implies the absence of division among heirs, and is accordingly a mark of the servile nature of the holding. Further, whenever a place was called, as so many places were, by the name of a single person, it seems obvious that at the moment when its name was acquired it was under a land ownership, which, as regards the dependent population upon it, was a lordship. We have seen that in the laws of King and also Ethelbert the ' hams ' and ' tuns ' of England are , spoken of as in a single ownership, whilst the men- E E 2 420 Result of the Evidence. Chap. xi. tion of the three grades of ' lasts ' shows that there were semi-servile tenants upon them. And in the vast number of instances in which local names con- sist of a personal name with a suffix, the evidence of the local name itself is strong for the manorial The earlier character of the estate. When that suffix is tun, or and^tuns' ham, or villa, with the personal name prefixed, the manore. evidence is doubly strong. Even when connected with an impersonal prefix, these suffixes in them- selves distinctly point, as we have seen, to the manorial character of the estate, with at least direct, if not absolutely conclusive, force. Whatever doubt remains is not as to the generally manorial character of the hams and tuns of the earliest Saxon records, or as to the serfdom of their tenants ; as to this, it is submitted that the evidence is clear and conclusive. Whatever doubt remains is as to which of two possible courses leading to this result was taken by the Saxon conquerors of Britain. As regards the methods of their conquest, there happens to exist no satisfactory contemporary evi- dence. They may either have conquered and adopted the Roman villas, whether in private or imperial hands, with the slaves and ' coloni ' or ' tributarii ' upon them, calling them ' hams,' or they may have destroyed the Roman villas and their tenants, and have estab- lished in their place fresh 'hams' of their own, which in mediaeval Latin records, whether in private or royal possession, were also afterwards called 'villas.' In some districts they may have followed the one course, in other districts the other course. Either of the two might as well as the other have produced manors and manorial serfdom. The English Settlements. 121 But when the internal evidence of the Anglo-Saxon Chap, xr land system is examined, even this doubt as to which Surmaii of the two methods was generally followed is in part [[JJ^ removed. For it may at least be said with truth Germiin that the hundred years of historical darkness during prove oon- which there is a simple absence of direct testimony, aSTaJjin- is at least bridged over by such planks of indirect £j. economic evidence as the apparent connexion between miaatio,) the Eoman ' jugation ' and the Saxon ' hidage,' the resemblance between the Eoman and Saxon allot- ment of a certain number of acres along with single or double yokes of oxen to the holdings, the preva- lence of the rule of single succession, the apparent continuance of the Eoman tributum and annonce, and even some of the sordida munera in the Saxon gafol, gafol-yrth, averagium, and other manorial services ; and, lastly, the fact that in Gaul and Upper Germany the actual continuity between the Eoman villa and the German heim can be more or less clearly traced. The force of this economic evidence, it is sub- unless the mitted, is at least enough to prove either that there were them- was a sufficient amount of continuity between the fo^sed Eoman villa and the Saxon manor to preserve the general type, or that the German invaders who de- stroyed and re-introduced the manorial type of estate came from a district in which there had been such continuity, and where they themselves had lived long enough to permit the peculiar manorial instincts of the Eomano-German province to become a kind of second nature to them. It is as impossible to conceive that this complex manorial land system, which we have found to bristle with historical survivals of usages of the Romano- 422 Result of the Evidence. Chap. XI. The large extent of folk-lard evidence against extensive allodial allotments. The in- vaders either adopted the natin as serfs or brought Berfa with thi mi. German province, should have been suddenly intro- duced into England by un-Romanised Northern piratical tribes of Germans, as it is to conceive of the sudden creation of a fossil. The most reasonable hypothesis, in the absence of direct evidence, appears therefore to be that the manorial system grew up in Britain as it grew up in Gaul and Germany, as the compound product of barbarian and Eoman institutions mixing together during the periods first of Roman provincial rule, and secondly of German conquest. This hypothesis seems at least most fully to account for the facts. Perhaps, it is not too much to say that whilst the large tracts of England remaining folk-land or terra regis, in spite of the lavish grants to monasteries complained of by Bede, are in themselves suggestive of the comparatively limited extent of allodial allotments among the conquering tribesmen, the existence and multiplication upon the terra regis, not of free village communities, but of royal manors of the same type as that of the Frankish villas, with a serfdom upon them also of the same type, and con- nected with the same three-field system of husbandry in both cases, almost amounts to a positive verifica- tion when the historical survivals clinging to the system in both cases are taken into account. Even on the supposition that the Saxons really exterminated the old population and destroyed every vestige of the Roman system, it has already become obvious that it would not at all follow that they generally introduced free village communities ; for in that ease the evidence would go far to show that they most likely brought slaves with them and settled The English Settlements. 423 them in servile village communities round their own Oh**, xi. dwellings, as Tacitus saw the Germans of his time doing in Germany. But, again, it must be remem- bered that however naturally this might produce the manor and serfdom, still the survivals of minute pro- vincial usages hanging about the Saxon land system would remain unaccounted for, unless the invaders of the fifth century had already been thoroughly Ro- manised before their conquest of Britain. We cannot, indeed, pretend to have discovered English in the economic evidence a firm bridge for all pur- !Si£7not poses across the historic gulf of the fifth century, with '' . J communi- and to have settled the difficult questions who were ties but the German invaders of England, whence they came, dom. S° and what was the exact form of their settlements in one district or another. But the facts we have examined seem to have settled the practical econo- mic question with which we started, viz. whether the hams and tuns of England, with their open fields and yard-lands, in the earliest historical times were inhabited and tilled in the main by free vil- lage communities, or by communities in villenage. However many exceptional instances there may have been of settlements in tribal households, or even free village communities, it seems to be almost certain that these ' hams ' and ' tuns ' were, generally speak- ing, and for the most part from the first, practically manors with communities in serfdom upon them. It has become at least clear, speaking broadly, that ^d notd" the equal ' yard-lands ' of the ' seburs ' were not the theaiiodiai ^ J D . allotment ' alods ' or free lots of ' alodial ' freeholders in a com- of a free mon ' mark,' but the tenements of serfs paying ' gafol' and doing 'week-work' for their lords. And this is 424 Result of the Evidence. Chap. xi. equally true whether the manors on which they lived were bocland of Saxon thanes, or folk-land under the ' villicus ' of a Saxon king. II. LOCAL EVIDENCE OP CONTINUITY BETWEEN ROMAN AND ENGLISH VILLAGES. There yet remains one test to which the hypothesis of continuity between the British, Eoman, and Eng- lish village community and open-field system may be put. Doubts as It has sometimes been inferred, perhaps too termfna-" readily, that the English invaders of Eoman Britain tionof the near]y exterminated the old inhabitants, destroy- popuiation ing the towns and villages, and making fresh settle- Engiishin- ments of their own, upon freshly chosen sites. If this were so, it would, of course, involve the destruction of the open fields round the old villages, and the formation of fresh open fields round the new ones. The passage in Ammianus Marcellinus has some- times been quoted, in which he describes the Alamanni, who had taken possession of Strasburg, Spires, Worms, Mayence, &c, as encamped outside these cities, shunning their inside ' as though they had been graves surrounded by nets.' 1 But this was in time of war, and no proof of what they might do when in peaceable possession of the country. Mr. Freeman also has drawn a graphic picture of Anderida, with the two Saxon villages of Pevensey and West Ham outside of its old Roman walls, and no dwellings within them. But it would so obviously be 1 Aram. Marc. xvi. c. ii. vaders. Continuity in English Villages. 425 much easier to build new houses outside the gates of Chap. xi. a ruined city, or, perhaps, we should say rather fortified camp, than to clear away the rubbish and build upon the old site, that such an instance is far from conclusive. Nor does the fact that in so many cases the streets of once Eoman cities deviate from the old Eoman lines prove that the new builders avoided the ancient sites. It proves only that, in- stead of removing the heaps of rubbish, they chose the open spaces behind them as more convenient for their new buildings, in the process of erecting which the heaps of rubbish were doubtless gradually removed. But, in truth, cases of fortified cities are not to is there ttti r- i i i • evidence of the point. What we want to rind out is whether, in continuity the rural districts, the British villages, with their open ^ua^1™1 fields around them, were generally adopted by the Romans, and whether, having survived the Roman occupation, the Saxons adopted them in their turn. It may be worth while to recur to the district e.g. in the from which was taken the typical example of the district. open fields, testing the point by such local evidence as may there be found. Among the ancient boundaries of the township of Hitchin, or rather of that part which included the now enclosed hamlet of Walsworth, was mentioned the Icknild way — that old British road which, passing The iek- from Wiltshire to Norfolk, here traverses the edge of °jJJ0^r the Chiltern hills. It sometimes winds lazily about ancient roads. uphill and down, following the line of the chalk downs. In many places it is merely a broad turf drift way. Here and there a long straight stretch of a mile or two suggests a Roman improvement upon 42 G Pus i ih of the Evidence. Chap. xi. its perhaps once more devious course. Here and there, too, are fragments of similar broad turf lanes leading nowhere, having lost the continuity which no doubt they once possessed. Sometimes crossing it, sometimes branching off from it, sometimes running parallel to it, are also frequently found similar wind- ing broad turf drift ways, or straight roads of appa- rently British or Eoman origin. It crosses Akeman Street at Tring, Watling Street at Dunstable, and Irmine Street at Eoyston. Neither Dunstable nor Eoyston, however, are examples of continuity, being comparatively modern towns, neither of them men- tioned in the Domesday Survey. Hitchin lies about half-way between the cross-roads. The dis- The district included in the annexed map, of iteBeigic1 which Hitchin is the centre, was a part of Belgic kings. Britain. According to Caesar this had been under the rule of the same king as Belgic Gaul, and upon the evidence of coins and certain passages in Roman writers, it is pretty well understood to have been, soon after the invasion of Ceesar, under the rule of Tasciovanus,1 whose capital was Verulamium, and after him of his son Cunobeline, whose capital was Camulodunum. The sons of the latter (one of them Caractacus) were prevented from succeeding him by the advance of the Eoman arms.2 The intimate relations of the two capitals at Verulam and at Col- chester explain the existence of the roads between them. The dykes which cross the Icknild way at in- 1 Evans' Ancient British Coins, p. 220 et scq. * Ibid. p. 284 et seq. xr. of iVil- ■d >e- ,&c. c Continuity in English. Villages. 427 tervals, East of Eoyston — the Brent dyke, the Bals- Chap. xi. ham dyke (parallel to the Via Devana), and the Devil's dyke, near Newmarket — seem to indicate that here was the border land between this district and that of the Iceni (Norfolk and Suffolk). Sandy (the Eoman Salince), at the north of the Coins of district in the map, is known, from the evidence of nuJTndT coins of Cunobeline, to have been an important British HnTbe" centre. A gold coin of Tasciovanus, and other British coins, have been picked up on the Icknild way, between Hitchin and Dunstable. A gold coin of Cunobeline, and many fragments of Eoman pottery, have been found about half a mile to the east of Abington, a village a little to the north of the Icknild way, near Eoyston.1 Coins of Cunobeline have also been found at Great Chesterford. A copper coin of Cunobeline was picked up in a garden in Walsworth, a hamlet of Hitchin, and British urns of a rude type have been recently found on the top of Benslow Hill, the high ground on the east of the town. The map will show in how many directions the Pre- district is cut up by Eoman roads, which, as they roads, &c evidently connect the various parts of the domain of the before-mentioned British kings, were probably, with the Icknild way itself, British tracks before they were adopted by the Eomans. Almost every commanding bluff of the chalk downs retains traces of its having been used as a hill fort, probably in pre-Eoman times, as well as later, while the numerous tumuli all along the route of the Icknild way testify, probably, to the numerous battles fought in its neighbourhood. 1 I am indebted to the Rev. W. G. F. Pigott for this information. 428 Result of the Evidence. Chap. XI. Tts Roman conquest under Claudius and Aulus Plautius, about a.d. 43. The Saxon conquest about a.d. 571. Probably this district fell under direct Eoman rule after the campaigns of Aulus Plautius and Claudius, about a.d. 43. 1 The direction of the ad- vance was probably across the Thames at Walling- ford, and along the Icknild way, from which the de- scent upon Verulam could well be made from Tring or Dunstable down what were afterwards called Akeman Street and Watling Street. Under the tumulus near Litlington, called Limloe, or Limbury Hill, skeletons were found, and coins of the reign of Claudius, and of later date. It is possible that the battle was fought here in a later reign which brought the further parts of the district under Eoman rule. The date of the Saxon conquest of this district may be as definitely determined. It preceded the conquest of Bath, Cirencester, and Gloucester by a very few years. It may be pretty clearly placed at about a.d. 571, when, according to the Saxon Chro- nicle, ' Cuthwulf fought with the Brit-weals at Bed- can-ford (Bedford), and took four towns. He took Lygean-birg (Lenborough) and Aegeles-birg (Ayles- bury), and Baenesingtun (Bensington) and Egones- ham (Eynsham).' This was the time when Bedford- shire, Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire fell into the hands of tne West Saxons. The old boundary of the ecclesiastical division of the country before the time of the Norman conquest included this district, with Bedford, in the diocese of Dorchester. The boundary probably followed the lines of the old West Saxon kingdom, and shut it off 1 See the paper on 'The Campaign of Aulus Plautius,' in Dr. Guest's Origines Celticcc, vol. u. Continuity in English Villages. 12'J from Essex and the rest of Hertfordshire, which were Quf. XI included in the diocese of London. The district, therefore, seems to have remained nearly 400 years under Eoman rule, and under the British post-Koman rule another 100 years, till within twenty-five or thirty years of the arrival of St. Augustine in England, and the date of the laws of King Ethelbert, and within little more than 100 years of the date of the laws of King Ine, which laws pre- sumably were founded upon customs of this district, once a part of the West Saxon kingdom. The question is whether the position of the Roman Do the remains which have been discovered in this neigh- ^^"suj bourhood points to a continuity in the sites of the f^°n?" present villages between British, Eoman, and Saxon times. This question may certainly, in many in- stances, and, perhaps, generally, be answered dis- tinctly in the affirmative. Take first the town of Hitchin itself. Its name The town in the Domesday Survey was ' Hiz,' and there can be or 'Hi ' little doubt that it is a Celtic word, meaning ' streams The position of the township accords with this name. The river 'Hiz' rises out of the chalk at Wellhead, almost immediately turns a mill, and, flowing through the town, joins the Ivel a few miles lower down in its course, and so flows ultimately into the Ouse. The Orton 2 rises at the west extremity of the township, in ' l i.e. 'of the streams.' 1 Compare supra, p. 161 : the change of ' Hisse-burn ' or ' Icenan- burn' into ' Itchin River,' and of ' set Icceburn' into 'Ticceburn,' and ' Titchbourne.' May not Ick- uild Way, or ' Icenan-hild-waeg, mean highway 'by the streams, and Ricknild Way mean highway ' by the ridge ' ? See map, supra, ch. v., 3. v. They are sometimes parallel as an upper and lower road. 2 Formerly 'Alton.' See Sur- vey of the Manor of Hitchin. IGoO. Public Record Office. 430 Result of the Evidence. Chap. xi. a few hundred yards turns West Mill, and forms the boundary of the parish till it meets the Hiz at Ickle- ford, where the two are forded by the Icknild way. The Purwell, rising from the south east, forms the boundary between the parishes of Hitchin and Much Wymondley, and then, after turning Purwell Mill, and dividing Hitchin from Walsworth Hamlet, also joins the Hiz before it reaches Ickleford. Thus two of these three pure chalk streams embrace the town- ship, and one passes through it giving its Celtic name Hiz to the town.1 It is not likely that either the Eomans or the Saxon invaders gave it this Celtic name. As already mentioned, on the top of the hill, to the east of the town, British sepulchral urns have been recently found. A Eoman cemetery, with a large number of sepulchral urns, dishes, and bottles, and coins of Severus, Carausius, Constantine, and Alectus, was turned up a few years ago on the top of the hill on the opposite side of the town, in a part of the open fields called ' The Fox-holes ' 2 — a plot of useless ground being often used for burials by the Eomans. Another Eoman cemetery, with very similar pottery and coins, has been found on Bury Mead, near the line where the arable part ceases and the Its Celtic name. British and Eoman re- mains. 1 In Hampshire the old Celtic or Belgic names of rivers in many cases gave their names to places upon them. The ' Itchin ' to Itch in Stoke, Itchin Abhas, Itchbourne, &c. The 'Meona' (Ccd. Dip. clviii.) to Meon Stoke, East and West Meon, &c The ' Candtfer ' (Cod. Dip. mcccix.) to three ' Cau- dovers.' So also the Tarrant gives its names to several places. 2 Now part of the garden of Mr. W. T. Lucas, in whose posses- sion many of them now remain. Three skeletons, one of them of great size, were found near the urns. Continuity in English Villages. 431 Lammas meadow lands begin. Bury field itself {i.e. Chap, xl the arable) has been deeply drained, but yielded no coins or urns. Occasional coins and urns have been found in the town itself. This, so far as it goes, is good evidence that Hitchin was a British and a Roman before it was a Saxon town. In the sub-hamlet of Charlton, near Wellhead, the source of the Hiz, small coins of the lower Empire have been found. As already mentioned, a coin of Cunobeline was found in the village of Walsworth. In even the hamlets, therefore, there is some evidence of continuity. At Ickleford, where the Icknild way crosses the Hiz, Eoman coins have been found. The next parish to the east, divided from Hitchin Much wy- by the Purwell stream, is Much Wymondley. The evidence of continuity, as regards this parish, is remarkably clear. The accompanying map l sup- plies an interesting example of open fields, with their strips and balks and scattered ownership still remain- ing in 1803. These open arable fields were originally divided off from the village by a stretch of Lammas land. Between this Lammas land and the church in the R<™™ , -, holding village he the remains of the little Eoman holding, of perhaps of which an enlarged plan is given. It consists now of veteran. several fields, forming a rough square, with its sides to the four points of the compass, and contains, fill- ing in the corners of the square, about 25 Eoman 1 For permission to reproduce this map I am indebted to the present lord of the manor, C. W. Wilshere, Esq., of the Fryth, Wel- wyn. 432 Result of the Evidence. Chap. xi. jugera — or the eighth of a centuria of 200 jugera — the extent of land often allotted, as we have seen, to a retired veteran with a single pair of oxen. The proof that it was a Roman holding is as follows : — In the corner next to the church are two square fields still distinctly surrounded by a moat, nearly parallel to which, on the east side, was found a line of black earth full of broken Roman pottery and tiles. Near the church, at the south-west corner of the property, is a double tumulus, which, being close to the church field, may have been an ancient ' toot hill,' or a terminal mound. In the extreme opposite corner of the holding was found a Roman cemetery, contain- ing the urns, dishes, and bottles of a score or two of burials. Drawings of those of the vessels not broken in the digging, engraved from a photograph, are appended to the map, by the kind permission of the owner.1 Over the hedge, at this corner, begins the Lammas land.2 How many other holdings were included in the Roman village we do not know, but that the village was in the same position in relation to the open fields that it was in 1803 is obvious. Asimeii. Ashwell also evidently stands on its old site round the head of a remarkably strong chalk spring, the clear stream from which flows through the village as the river Rhee, a branch of the Cam. Early Roman coins and sepulchral urns have been found in the hamlet called ' Ashwell End,' and a Roman road, called ' Ashwell Street,' passes by the town parallel 1 Mr. William Ransom, of Fair- field, near Hitchin. ' As regards Roman cemeteries, as placed in the extreme corner of a holding, see Lachmann, pp. 271-2; De Sepulchris Dolabell. p. 303. P L A N of l)i«- Parish of MICH WYMONDLEY Reduced from a map made in (1i.v--.ti IB03 in ill. possession of (' .VV.WllsliriV Ks<|. 4C.OPAMAM LT°. UITH ■», LONDON, SE U r Continuity in English Villages. 433 to the Icknild way. Near to the town is a camp, Chap. xi. with a clearly defined vallum, called Harborough Banks, where coins of the later Empire have been found. A map of the parish, made before the enclo- sure, and preserved in the place, shows that it pre- sented a remarkably good example of the open-field system. An instance of continuity as remarkable as that Roman of Much Wymondley occurs at Litlington,1 the next cemetery, village to Ash well, on the Ashwell Street. The church and manor house in this case lie near together on the west side of the village, and in the adjoining field and gardens the walls and pavements, of a Roman villa were found many years ago. At a little distance from it, nearer to the Ashwell Street, a Roman ustri- num and cemetery were found, surrounded by four walls, and yielding coins of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Quintillus, Carausius, Constantine the Great, Mag- nentius, &c. A map of this village is appended. When the Roman villa was discovered, the open fields around the village were still unenclosed, and the position of Ashwell Street was pushed farther from the village at the time of the enclosure. The tumulus called ' Limloe,' or 'Limbury Hill,' lies at the side of the road leading from the Icknild way across the Ashwell Street to the village, and im- mediately under it skeletons with coins of Claudius, Vespasian, and Faustina were found, as already men- tioned. A few miles further east than Royston are two ickieton villages, Ickieton on the Icknild way, and Great terford!"* 1 Archaologia, vol. xxvi. p. 376. F P 434 Result of the Evidence. Chap. XI. Hadstock. Other in- stances of continuity in the sites of villages. Ancient mounds and earth works. Chesterford a little to the south of it. That both these places are on Eoman sites the foundations and coins which have been found attest.1 There are remains of a camp at Chesterford, and coins of Cunobeline as well as numerous Eoman coins have been dug up there.2 At Hadstock, a village near, in a field called ' Sunken Church Field,' Eoman foundations and coins have been found.3 Proceeding further east the list of similar cases might be greatly increased. But keeping within the small district, in the following other cases the finding of Eoman coins in the villages seems to be fair proof of continuity in their sites, viz.: — Sandy, Campton, Baldock, Willian, Cumberlow Green, Weston, Ste- venage, Hexton, and Higham Gobion. Two remarkable instances of ancient mounds or fortifications close to churches occur at Meppershall and Pirton, of both of which plans are given. The Pirton mound is called in the village the ' toot hill.' These mounds in the neighbourhood of churches may be much older than the Saxon conquest. Open air courts were by no means confined to one race.4 Eoman remains have been found in the neighbourhood of both these places, but how near to the actual village sites I am unable to say.6 Leaving out these two and many more doubtful cases, and without pretending to be exhaustive, there have been mentioned nearly a score in which Eoman 1 Journal of British Archceo- Jogiced Association, iv. 356, and v. 64. 3 Archceologia, xxxii. p. 350. 8 Id., p. 352. * See Mr. Gomme's interesting work on Primitive Folkmotes, c. ii. 6 A remarkably fine glass funeral urn was found about half a mile below the Meppershall Hills in 1882 by the tenant of the neighbouring farm. triet. Continuity in English Villages. 435 remains or coins have already been found on the Chap. xi. present sites of villages in this small district. So far the local evidence supports the view thai strong eri' the West Saxons, who probably conquered it about eontinniiy a.d. 570, succeeded to a long-settled agriculture ; and I",!!118dlB* further it seems likely that, assuming the lordship vacated by the owners of the villas, and adopting the village sites, they continued the cultivation of the open fields around them by means of the old rural popula- tion on that same three-field system, which had pro- bably been matured and improved during Eoman rule, and by which the population of the district had been supported during the three generations between the departure of the Eoman governors and the West Saxon conquest. But it may perhaps be urged thai these districts, conquered so late as a.d. 570, may have been excep- tionally treated. If this were so, it must be borne in mind that the whole of central England — i.e. the coun- ties described in the second volume of the Hundred Eolls as to which the evidence for the existence of the open-field system was so strong — was included in the exception. Indeed, if the line of the Icknild way be extended along Akeman Street to Cirencester, Bath, and Gloucester, the line of the Saxon conquests which were later than a.d. 560 would be pretty clearly marked. The laws of Ine, pointing backwards as they do from their actual date, reach back within two or three generations of the date of the Saxon conquest of this part of Old Wessex. It would be impossible here to pursue the ques- tion in detail in other parts of England. Perhaps it will be sufficient to call attention to the many cases F P 2 436 Result of the Evidence. The Hitchin district hardly excep- tional. Chap. xi. mentioned in Mr. C. Koach Smith's valuable ' Collec- tanea,'1 in which Eoman remains have been found in close proximity to the churches of modern villages, and to his remark that a long list of such instances might easily be made.2 The number of such cases which occur in Kent is very remarkable, and Kent was certainly not a late conquest. I will only add a passing allusion to the remark- able case at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, where the church, present mansion, and Eoman villa are close together,3 and mention that in two of the ham- lets on the manor of Tidenham — Stroat and Sedbury (or Cingestun) — Eoman remains bear testimony to a Eoman occupation before the West Saxon conquest.4 The fact seems to be that the archseological evi- dence, gradually accumulating as time goes on, points more and more clearly to the fact that our modern villages are very often on their old Eoman and some- times probably pre-Eoman sites — that however much the English invaders avoided the walled towns of Eoman Britain, they certainly had no such antipathy to the occupation of its villas and rural villages. 1 Vol. i. pp. 17, 66, 190; vol. iii. p. 33; vol. iv. p. 155 ; vol. v. p. 187 ; vol. vi. p. 222. 2 Collectanea, v. p. 187. The recently discovered Roman villa on the property of Earl Cowper, at Wingham, near Canterbury, is a striking instance. See Mr. Dowker's pamphlet thereon. See also Archceologia, xxix. p. 217, &c, where Mr. C. Roach Smith men- tions several other instances. 3 Account of the Roman An- tiquities at Woodchester, by S. Lysons. Lond.: mdccxcvii. 4 See Mr. Ormerod's Archa-w lo(ji<:al Memoirs. Conclusion. 437 Chap. XI. III. CONCLUSION. The economic result of the inquiry pursued in this Economic essay may now be summed up in few words. result" Its object was not to inquire into the origin of village and tribal communities as the possible be- ginning of all things, but simply to put English Economic History on true lines at its historical be- ginning, viz. : the English Conquest. Throughout the whole period from pre-Eoman to Two rural modern times we have found in Britain two parallel through- systems of rural economy side by side, but keeping °"n~ebe separate and working themselves out on quite differ- pommnnitj x ° -1 in the east, ent lines, in spite of Eoman, English, and Norman and the invasions — that of the village community in the inanity in eastern, that of the tribal community in the western districts of the island. Both systems as far back as the evidence extends Com- were marked by the two notes of community and ana ' equality, and each was connected with a form of the Sth.lt" " open or common field system of husbandry peculiar to itself. These two different forms of the common Ead had field system also kept themselves distinct throughout, opened j and are still distinct in their modern remains or sysicm- survivals. Neither the village nor the tribal community Both Pr°- • i i • t» • • j • Roman. seems to have been introduced into Britain during a historical period reaching back for 2,000 years at least. On the one hand, the village community of the The Eng. ,. -r, . 1 • l lish villa-' eastern districts of Britain was connected with a community settled agriculture which, apparently dating earlier I^J"* on 438 Conclusion. Chap. xi. than the Roman invasion and improved during the th^fieid Roman occupation, was carried on, at length, under system. tiiat three-field form of the open-field system which became the shell of the English village community. The equality in its yard-lands and the single succession which preserved this equality we have found to be apparently marks not of an original freedom, not of an original allodial allotment on the German ' mark system,' but of a settled serfdom under a lordship — a semi-servile tenancy implying a mere usufruct, theoretically only for life, or at will, and carrying with it no inherent rights of inheritance. But this serfdom, as we have seen reason to believe, was, to a step out the masses of the people, not a degradation, but a toward^7 step upward out of a once more general slavery. Cer- don/oTthe tainly during the 1,200 years over which the direct new order English evidence extends the tendency has been to- ot things. <-> J wards more and more of freedom. In other words, as time went on during these 1,200 years, the serfdom of the old order of things has been gradually breaking up under those influences, whatever they may have been, which have produced the new order of things. The tribal On the other hand, the tribal community of the and?tsDlty western districts of Great Britain and of Ireland, though •run-rig* parallel in time with the village community of the system. -1 . . eastern districts, was connected with an earlier stage of economic development, in which the rural economy was pastoral rather than agricultural. This tribal community was bound together, perhaps, in a unique degree, by the strong ties of blood relationship be- tween free tribesmen. The equality which followed the possession of the tribal blood involved an equal division among the sons of tribesmen, and was main- Conclusion. 439 tained in spite of the inequality of families by frequent (lIAP- xr- redistributions of the tribal lands, and shiftings of the tribesmen from one homestead to another according to tribal rules. We have traced the curious method of clustering the homesteads in arithmetical groups mentioned in the ancient Welsh laws, and still prac- tised in Ireland in the seventeenth century, and we have found many survivals of it in the present names and divisions of Irish townlands. We have found the simple form of open-field husbandry used under the tribal system, and suited to its precarious and shifting agriculture, still surviving in the ' rundale ' or ' run-rig ' system, by which, to this day, is effected opposed to . the new in Ireland and western Scotland that infinite sub- order of division of holdings which marks the tenacious ad- herence to tribal instincts on the part of a people still fighting an unequal battle against the new order of things. The new order has, no doubt, arisen in one sense Th,e new . order op- out of both branches of the old, but neither the posed to manorial village community of the eastern district, and nor the tribal community of the west, can be said to e(iuallty- be its parent. Its fundamental principle seems to be opposed to the community and equality of the old order in both its forms. The freedom of the individual and growth of individual enterprise and property which mark the new order imply a rebellion against the bonds of the communism and forced equality, alike of the manorial and of the tribal system. It has triumphed by breaking up both the communism of serfdom and the communism of the free tribe. Nor, it would seem, can the new order be regarded J w°jegr8 u with any greater truth as a development from the range of 440 Conclusion. Chap. XI economic develop- ent. The com- munism of the old order a thing of the past, germs of any German tribal or ' mark ' system im- ported in the keels of the English invaders. It would seem to belong to an altogether wider range of eco- nomic development than that of one or two races. Its complex roots went deeply back into that older world into which the Teutonic invaders introduced new elements and new life, no doubt, but, it would seem, without destroying the continuity of the main stream of its economic development, or even of the outward forms of its rural economy. This, from an economic point of view, is the important conclusion to which the facts examined in this essay seem to point. These facts will be ex- amined afresh by other and abler students, and the last word will not soon have been said upon some of them. They are drawn from so wide a field, and from lines reaching back so far, that their interest and bearing upon the matter in hand will not soon be exhausted or settled. But if the conclusion here suggested should in the main be confirmed, what English Economic History loses in simplicity it will gain in breadth. It will cease to be provincial. It will become more closely identified with the general economic evolution of the human race in the past. And this in its turn will give a wider interest to the vast responsibilities of the English-speaking nations in connexion with the progress of the new order of things and the solution of the great economic pro- blems of the future. What are the forces which have produced, and are producing, the evolution of the new order, and to what ultimate goal the ' weary Titan ' is bearing the ' too full orb of her fate,' are questions of the Conclusion. Ill highest rank of economic and political importance, Chap. xr. but questions upon which not much direct light has been thrown, perhaps, in this essay. Still the know- ledge what the community and equality of the Eng- lish village and of the Keltic tribe really were under the old order may at least dispel any lingering wish or hope that they may ever return. Communistic systems such as these we have examined, which have lasted for 2,000 years, and for the last 1,000 years at least have been gradually wearing themselves out, are hardly likely — either of them — to be the economic goal of the future. The reader of this essay may perhaps contemplate the few remaining balks and linces of our English like tJie n in i i • • i f ! open-field common fields, and the surviving examples ol the system. ■ run-rig' system in Ireland and Scotland, with greater interest than before, but it will be as historical sur- vivals, not of types likely to be reproduced in the future, but of economic stages for ever past. APPENDIX. THE MANOR OF HITCHIN (PORTMAN AND FOREIGN) IN THE COUNTY OF HERTFORD. 'At the Court [Leet and] of the View of Frank pledge is is. ' of our Sovereign Lord the King with the General Court 0ct- 2l ' Baron of William Wilshere, Esquire, Lord Firmar of the ' said manor of his Majesty, holden in and for the manor ' aforesaid, on Thursday, the twenty-first day of October, ' One thousand eight hundred and nineteen, Before Joseph * Eade, Gentleman, Steward of the said manor, and by ad- journment on Monday, the first day of November ncxl ' following, before the said Joseph Eade, the Steward afore- ' said. ' The jurors for our Lord the King and the Homage of ' this Court having diligently enquired into the boundaries, * extent, rights, jurisdictions, and customs of the said manor, ' and the rights, powers, and duties of the lord and tenants ' thereof, and having also enquired what lands in the town- « ship of Hitchin and in the hamlet of Walsworth respectively * within this manor are subject to common of pasture for the ' commonable cattle of the occupiers of messuages, cottages, ' and land within the said township and hamlet respectively, ' and for what descriptions and number of cattle, and at what ' times of the year and in what manner such rights of com- ' mon are by the custom of this manor to be exercised, and ' what payments are by such custom due in respect thereof, ' they do upon their oaths find and present as follows : — 'That the manor comprises the township of Hitchin and •the hamlet of Walsworth, in the parish of Hitchin, the 444 Appendix. Bounda- ries. Jurisdic- tion. * lesser manors of the Rectory of Hitchin, of Moremead, * otherwise Charlton, and of the Priory of the Biggin, being * comprehended within the boundaries of the said manor of * Hitchin, which also extends into the hamlets of Langley * and Preston in the said parish of Hitchin, and into the ' parishes of Ickleford, Ippollitts, Kimpton, Kingswalden, * and Offley. ' That the following are the boundaries of the township ' of Hitchin with the hamlet of Walsworth (that is to say), 1 beginning at Orton Head, proceeding from thence to Bur- * ford Pay, and from thence to a water mill called Hide Mill, i and from thence to Wilberry Hills ; from thence to a place 1 called Bossendell, from thence to a water mill called Pur- ' well Mill, and from thence to a brook or river called Ippol- ' litts' Brook, and from thence to Maydencroft Lane, and ' from thence to a place called Wellhead, and from thence to c a place called Stubborn Bush, and from thence to a place * called Offley Cross, and from thence to Five Borough * Hills, and from thence back to Orton Head, where the ' boundaries commenced. And that all the land in the ' parish of Hitchin lying on the north side of the river which * runneth from Purwell Mill to Hide Mill is within the ham- * let of Walsworth, and that the following lands on the south 4 side of the same river are also within the same hamlet of * Walsworth (vizt.), Walsworth Common, containing about * fourteen acres ; the land of Sir Francis Sykes called the ' Leys, on the south side of Walsworth Common, containing * about four acres ; the land of William Lucas and Joseph * Lucas, called the Hills, containing about two acres ; and ' nine acres or thereabouts, part of the land of Sir Francis ' Sykes, called the Shadwells, the residue of the land called ' the Shadwells on the north side of the river. ' That the lord of the manor of Hitchin hath Court Leet * View of Frank pledge and Court Baron, and that the juris- ' diction of the Court Leet and View of Frank pledge ex- * tendeth over the whole of the township of Hitchin and the ' hamlet of Walsworth. That a Court Leet and Court of the 4 View of Frank pledge and Great Court Baron are accus- r tomed to be hold en for the said manor within one month Appendix. \ L5 after the Feast of Saint Michael the Archangel in every year, and may also be holden within one month alter the Feast of Easter. And that general or special Courts Baron and customary Courts are holden at the pleasure of the lord or of his steward. * That in the Court Leet yearly holden after the Feast of St. Michael the Archangel the jurors for our Lord the King are accustomed to elect and present to the lord two con- stables and six headboroughs (vizt.), two headboroughs for Bancroft Ward, two for Bridge Ward, and two for Tilehouse Street Ward (each such constable and headborough having right and being bound to execute the office through the whole leet), and likewise two ale conners, two leather searchers and sealers, and a bellman who is also the watch- man and cryer of the town. And they present that Ban- croft Ward contains Bancroft Street, including the Swan Inn, Silver Street, Portmill Lane, and the churchyard, church and vicarage house, and the alley leading out of Bancroft now called Quaker's Alley. That Bridge Ward contains the east and north sides of the market place, and part of the south side thereof to the house of John Whitney, formerly called the Maidenhead Inn, Mary's Street, other- wise Angel Street, now called Sun Street, Bull Street, now called Bridge Street, to the river ; Bull Corner, Back Street, otherwise Dead Street, from the south to the north extremities thereof; Biggin Lane with the Biggin and Hollow Lane. And that Tilehouse Street Ward contains Tilehouse Street, Bucklersbury to the Swan Inn, and the west side and the remainder of the south side of the market place. PRESENTMENTS OF THE HOMAGE. < And the Homage of this Court do also further present 6 that freeholders holding of the said manor do pay to the ' lord by way of relief upon the death of the preceding tenant Reliefs. ' one year's quitrent, but that nothing is due to the lord ' upon the alienation of freehold. ' That the fines upon admissions of copyholders, whether Fines on ' by descent or purchase, are, and beyond the memory of *j^ UQ Appendix. PoVer of leasing. Forfeiture. Heriots. Woods and trees. man have been, certain (to wit), half a year's quitrent ; and that where any number of tenants are admitted jointly in one copy, no greater fine than one half year's quitrent is due for the admission of all the joint tenants. ' The Homage also present that by the custom of the manor the customary tenants may without licence let their copyholds for three years and no longer, but that they may by licence of the lord let the same for any term not ex- ceeding twenty-one years ; and that the lord is upon every such licence entitled to a fine of one year's quitrent of the premises to be demised. ' The Homage present that the freehold tenants of the said manor forfeit their estates to the lord thereof for treason and for murders and other felonies ; and that the copyholders forfeit their estates for the like crimes, and for committing or suffering their copyholds to be wasted, for wilfully refusing to perform their services, and for leasing their copyholds for more than three years without licence. ' The Homage also present that by the custom of this manor copyholds are granted by copy or court roll for the term of forty years, and that a tenant outliving the said term is entitled to be re-admitted for the like term upon payment of the customary fine of half a year's quit- rent. ' The Homage present that there are no heriots due or payable to the lord of this manor for any of the tenements holden thereof. ' The Homage also present that all woods, underwoods, and trees growing upon the copyhold lands holden of the said manor were by King James the First, by his Letters Patent, under the Great Seal of England, bearing date the fourteenth day of March, in the 6th year of his reign (in consideration of two hundred and sixty-six pounds sixteen shillings paid to his Majesty's use), granted to Thomas Goddesden and Thomas Chapman, two copyholders of the said manor, and their heirs and assigns, in trust to the use of themselves and the rest of the copyholders of the said manor; and that the copyhold tenants of the said manor are by virtue of such grant entitled to cut all timber and Appendix. 1 17 ' other trees growing on their copyholds, and to dis] * thereof at their will. 'The Homage also present that no toll has ever been Ghrain told * paid or ought to be paid for any kind of corn or grain Bold '" "/'\ c • ii 1 » „,; , . J o market in the market of Hitckin. toll free. ' They also present that from the time whereof the Common 'memory of man is not to the contrary, the lord of this ^''j"1^ 4 manor has been used to find and provide a common pound ' and stocks for the use of the tenants of this manor. ' And the Homage do further present that by the custom ' of this manor the lord may, with the consent of the Homage, ' grant by copy of court roll any part of the waste thereof, to ' be holden in fee according to the custom of the manor, at * a reasonable rent and by the customary services, or may * with such consent grant or demise the same for any lesser ' estate or interest. COMMONS WITHIN THE TOWNSHIP OF HITCHIN. * And the Homage of this Court do further present that ' the commonable land within the manor and township of ' Hitchin consists of — ' Divers parcels of ground called the Green Commons, 1st. Green ' the soil whereof remains in the lord of the said manor (that pommons is to say) : township ' Butts Close, containing eight acres or thereabouts ; of Hltchlu- ' Orton Mead, containing forty acres or thereabouts, exclu- * sively of the Haydons, and extending from the Old Road * from Hitchin to Pirton by Orton Head Spring west unto * the way which passes through Orton Mill Yard east ; and ' that the Haydons on the east of the last mentioned way, * containing four acres or thereabouts, are parts of the same ' common, and include a parcel of ground containing one ' rood and thirteen perches or thereabouts adjoining the i river, which have been fenced from the rest of the common * by Samuel Allen ; and the ground called the Plats lying * between Bury Mead and Cock Mead, containing two acres * or thereabouts, including the slip of ground between the ' river and the way leading to the mill of the said John ^48 Appendix. 2nd. Lammas Meadows. 3rd. Com- mon fields. Right of cummun. Common lull. Ransom, lately called Burnt Mill, and now called Grove Mill, which hath been fenced off and planted by John Ransom. ' And of the lands of divers persons called the Lamrnas Meadows in Cock Mead, which contain eighteen acres or thereabouts, and in Bury Mead, which contains forty-five acres or thereabouts, including a parcel of land of the Rev. Woollaston Pym, clerk, called Old Hale. ' And of the open and unenclosed land within the several common fields, called Purwell Field, Welshman's Croft, Bur- ford Field, Spital Field, Moremead Field, and Bury Field. ' That the occupier of every ancient messuage or cottage within the township of Hitchin hath a right of common for such cattle and at such times as are hereinafter specified upon the Green Commons and the Lammas Meadows, but no person hath any right of common within this township as appurtenant to or in resj)ect of any messuage or cottage built since the expiration of the 13th year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, unless the same shall have been erected on the site of an ancient messuage then standing. * That any person having right of common in respect of the messuage or cottage in his actual occupation may turn on the Green Commons and the Lammas Meadows two cows and one bullock, or cow calf under the age of two years. * That the rectors impropriate of the rectory of the parish of Hitchin or their lessees of the said rectory are bound to find a bull for the cows of the said township, and to go with the herd thereof, and that no other bull or bull calf may be turned on the commons. * That Butts Close is the sole cow common from the 6th day of April, being Old Lady-day inclusive, to the 12th day of May also inclusive, and after that time is used lor col- lecting in the morning the herd going out to the other commons. ' That Orton Mead, including the Haydons, is an open common upon and from the thirteenth day of May, called Old May-day, till the fourteenth day of February, called Old Candlemas Dav. Appendix. 449 'That the Plats are an open common upon and from ' Whitsunday till the 6th day of April. ' That Cock Mead and Bury Mead became commonable ' on the thirteenth day of August, called Old Lammas Day, 4 and continue open till the 6th day of April. 4 That the common fields called Bury Field and Welsh - 4 man's Croft are commonable for cows only from the time ' when the corn is cut and carried therefrom until the twelfth ' day of November, called All Saints', and that the close of 4 Thomas Wilshire, gentleman, called Bury Field Close, is part 4 of the common field called Bury Field, and the closes of 4 John Crouch Priest, called Ickleford Closes, are part of 4 Welshman's Croft, and are respectively commonable at the 4 same times with the other parts of such respective common * fields. 4 That every occupier of an ancient messuage or cottage 1 hath right of common upon the Green Commons, except 4 Butts Close, for one gelding from and after the thirteenth 4 day of August until the fourteenth day of February. 4 That no person entitled to common for his cattle may 4 turn or suffer the same to remain on any of the commons 4 between the hours of six in the evening and six in the 4 morning. 4 That it is the duty of the Homage at every Great Court 4 Baron holden next after the Feast of St. Michael to appoint 4 a herdsman for this township, and that every commoner 4 turning his cows upon the commons is bound to pay a 4 reasonable sum, to be from time to time assessed by the 4 Homage, for the expenses of scouring the ditches, repairing 4 the fences and hedges, and doing other necessary works for 4 the preservation of the commons and for the wages of the 4 herdsman. And the Homage of this Court assess and present 4 such payments at one shilling for every head of cattle 4 turned on the commons, payable by each commoner on the 4 first day in every year on which he shall turn his cattle 4 upon the commons, to be paid to the foreman of the Homage 4 of the preceding Court Baron, and applied in and towards 4 such expenses. And that the further sum of threepence be 4 paid on Monday weekly for every head of cattle which any G G 450 Appendix. commoner shall turn or keep on the commons for the wages of the herdsman. * That the cattle to be depastured on the commons ought to be delivered or sent by the owners to Butts Close between the hours of six and eight of the morning from the sixth day of April to the eleventh day of October, both inclusive ; and after the eleventh of October between the hours of seven and nine of the morning. And that it is the duty of the herdsman to attend there during such hours, and to receive into his care the cattle brought to him, and to conduct them to the proper commons, and to attend and watch them there during the day, and to return them to the respective owners at six o'clock in the evening or as near thereto as may be ; but no cow which is not brought to the herdsman within the hours before appointed for collecting the herd is considered as part of the herd or tc be under the herdsman's care ; and that no horned cattle ought to be received into the herd without sufficient knobs on their horns. The com- mon fields. The three seasons. SHEEP COMMONS. 1 That every occupier of unenclosed land in any of the common fields of the said township hath common of pasture for his sheep levant and couchant thereon over the residue of the unenclosed land in the same common field, in every year from the time when the corn is cut and carried until the same be again sown with corn, and during the whole of the fallow season, save that no sheep may be depastured on the land in Bury Field and Welshman's Croft between the harvest and the twelfth day of November, the herbage thereof from the harvest to the twelfth day of November being reserved for the cows. ' That the common fields within the township of Ilitchin have immemorially been and ought to be kept and culti- vated in three successive seasons of tilthgrain, etchgrain, and fallow. ' That the last fallow season of Purwell Field and Welsh- man's Croft was from the harvest of 1816 until the wheat Bowing in the autumn of 1817 ; and that the fallow season Appendix. 451 * of those fields commenced again at the close of the last 4 harvest. That the last fallow season of Burford Field and 1 Spital Field was from the harvest of the year 1817 until the ' wheat sowing in the autumn of the year 1818. And the * last fallow season of Moremead Field and Bury Field was * from the harvest of 1818 until the wheat sowing of 1819. * That no person hath any right of common for sheep on * any of the Green Commons or Lammas ground within this * township except on Old Hale and on the closes of John 4 Crouch Priest, called Ickleford Closes, which are comnmn- * able for sheep at the same time with the field called Welsh- * man's Croft. 'The Homage find and present that every owner and Right of ' every occupier of land in any of the common fields of this erc!08Uro . giving up * township may at his will and pleasure enclose and fence right of * any of his land lying in the common fields of this township comm°°- ' (other than and except land in Bury Field and Welshman's * Croft), and may, so long as the same shall remain so enclosed 4 and fenced, hold such land, whether the same belong to one 4 or to more than one proprietor, exempt from any right or 4 power of any other owner or occupier of land in the said 4 township to common or depasture his sheep on the land so 4 enclosed and fenced (no right of common on other land ; being claimed in respect of the land so enclosed and fenced). * The Homage also find and present that the commonable 4 lands in the hamlet of Walsworth within this manor con- 4 sist of — 4 A parcel of meadow ground called Walsworth Common, Walsworth 4 containing fourteen acres or thereabouts, the soil whereof Common 4 remains in the lord of the manor. 4 And of certain parcels of meadow called Lammas ' Meadow (that is to say), the Leys, part of the estate of Sir 4 Francis Sykes adjoining to Walsworth Common, and con- 4 taining four acres or thereabouts ; Ickleford Mead, contain- ing two acres or thereabouts; Ralph's Pightle, adjoining 4 to Highover Moor, containing one acre or thereabouts, 4 Woolgroves, containing three acres or thereabouts, lying * near to the mill of John Ransom, heretofore called Burnt * Mill, and now called Grrove Mill. e g 2 452 Appendix. 1 A close called the Hills, containing two acres or thereabouts, on the west side of the road from Hitchin to Baldock, and a parcel of land called the Shadwells on the east side of the same road, and divided by the river, con- taining twelve acres or thereabouts. 4 And they find and present that four several parcels of land hereinafter described have been by John Ransom en- closed and fenced out from the said Lammas ground called Woolgroves, and are now by him held in severalty. ' And that the same are and always have been parts of the commonable land of the said hamlet (to wit) : A piece of land containing twenty-one perches or thereabouts on the south-west side of the present course of the river, and between the same and the old course ; a piece of land containing twelve perches or thereabouts, now by the altera- tion of the course of the river surrounded by water ; a piece of land on the north-east side of Woolgroves, containing one rood and twenty-two perches or thereabouts ; and a piece of land at the south-east corner of Woolgroves, con- taining one rood or thereabouts. ' And the Homage find and present that the occupier of every ancient messuage or cottage within the hamlet of Walsworth hath a right to turn and depasture on the com- monable land thereof, in respect of arid as appurtenant to his messuage or cottage, two cows and a bullock or yearling cow calf upon and from the thirteenth day of May, called Old May-day, until the sixth day of April, called Old Lady- day, and one horse upon and from the said thirteenth day of May until the thirteenth day of August, called Old Lammas- day, and hath a right to turn the like number of cattle upon the Lammas ground in Walsworth upon and from Old Lammas-day until Old Lady-day. That no person hath a right to common or turn any sheep upon the said common called Walsworth Commons, and that no sheep may be turned on the Lammas ground of Walsworth be- tween Old Lammas-day and the last day of November. ' The Homage also present that it is the duty of the Homage of this Court at every Great Court Baron yearly holden next after the Feast of St. Michael, upon the appli- Appendix. 453 * cation and request of any of the persons entitled to common ' the cattle upon the commons within the hamlet of Wals- ' worth, to appoint a herdsman for the said hamlet, and to ' fix and assess a reasonable sum to be paid to him for his ' wages, and also a reasonable sum to be paid by the com- ' moners for draining and fencing the commons. * This Court was then adjourned to Monday, the first day J of November next. 4 Signed Tnos. Jeeves (Foreman). Samuel Smith. John Marshall. Willm. Dunnage. Wm. Bloom. Robt. Newton. Willm. Hall. Wm. Marten. Thos. Waller. Geo. Beaver, w. sworder. John Moore. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. ACR A CRE, the 'selio,' or strip in the open **• field (40 x 4 rods), 3, 106, 385. A day's work in ploughing, 124. Rea- son of its shape, 124. Welsh acre, see ' Erw ' Agcr, agellus, agellulus, territory of a manor, 167 Ager publicus, tenants on, 272-288. Tendencies towards manorial methods of management, 300, 308 Agri decumates, occupied by Alamannic tribes, 282-288. Position of tenants on, 311 Agri occupatorii, with irregular bound- aries, 277, and sometimes scattered ownership, 278 Agrimensores (Roman), methods of cen- turiation, 250, 276, 279 Aillt, or altud. See ' Taeog.' Compare Aldiones of Lombardic Laws and Saxon 'althud ' = foreigner, 281 Alamanni, German tribes, offshoots of, Hermunduri, Thuringi, &c, 282. Some deported into Britain, 285. Conquered by Julian, 286 Alfred the Great, his founding the New Minster at Winchester, 160. Services of serfs on his manor of Hysseburne, 162. His sketch of growth of a new ham, 169. His Boethius quoted, 168 Amobr, fee on marriage of females under Welsh laws, 195 Andecena, day work of serf under Bavarian laws same shape as English acre, 325, 386, 391 Angaria and parangarue, carrying or post-horse services (sec Roman 'sor- dida munera'), 297, and so any forced service, 298. Manorial services, 324- 327 Anwander, German 'headland,' 381 Archenfeld, in Wales, survey of, in Domesday Book, 182, 20G-7 GOV Averagium manorial carrying servico from avera or affri, beasts of burden, 298, ».;at Bleadon, 57 ~DALK, the unploughed turf bel two acre strips in the open fields, 4; in 'Piers the Plowman,' 19; in Cambridge terrier, 20 ; in Welsh laws, 119; a Welsh word, 382 Ballibetogh, cluster of 16 taths or homesteads, 215-224 Bally, Irish townland, 221, 223 Battle Abbey Becords (a.d. 1284-7). 49 Bcde, complaint of lavish grants of manors to monasteries, 168 Bees, Welsh Law of, 207 Bene-work or Boon-work. See Precarise Black Death, 20 ; influence on villen- age, 3 1 Boc-land, land of inheritance perma- nently made over by charter or deed, 168, 171 Boldon Book (a.d. 1183), evidence of, 68-72 Book of St. Chad, Welsh charters in margins of. 209 Booths, making of, by villani, for fairs of St. Cuthbert. 71 Bordarii, or cottagers (from 'bord,' a cottage), 76; in Domesday Survey, 95 ; normal holding about 5 acres, 97 ; mentioned in Liber Niger of Peterborough, 97 Boundaries, method of describing, in Hitchin Manor, 9 ; in S;ixon charters, 107,111. Manorof King Edwy(Tid- enham), 149 ; in Lirsch charters, 331. Roman method, 9. See also, 37 6 Bovate (Bovata tcrnc), the half yard- land contributing one ox to the team of eight, 61. 2 bovates is Boldon Book = virgate, 68 456 Index and Glossary. BRE Brchon Laws, 226, 231, 232 Breyr, free Welsh tribesman, 192 Britain, Belgic districts of, pre-Roman settled agriculture in, 245. Exports of corn during Roman rule, 247, 286. The marling of the land described by Pliny, 250. Analogous to ' one-field system' of North Germany, 372 Bucenobantes, deported into Britain, 287 Butts, strips in open fields abutting others, 6 ri.ESAR, description of British and Belgic agriculture, 246. Ditto of chiefs and tribesmen in Gaul, 305. Description of Gerimin tribal system, 336-338 Cambridge, terrier of open fields of, in fourteenth or fifteenth century, 19, 20 Carpenter, village official having his holding free, 70 Caruca (see Carucate), plough team of eight oxen, yoked four to a yoke, 62, 74, 123 ; caruca adjutrices, or smaller teams of villeins, 48, 74, 85 ; variations in team, 64, 74 ; of Domesday Survey, 85 Carucate, unit of assessment = land of a caruca (see Caruca), connexion with hide, 40. Used in Domesday Survey, 85 Ccntenarii, Roman and Frankish officials, 300-303 Centuria, division of land by Roman Agrimensores of 200 or 240 jugera, 276. Divided into eight normal sin- gle holdings of 25 or 30, or double holdings of 50 or 60 jugera, 276 Ctnturiation. See Agrimensores C(orl= husbandman ; a wide term em- bracing, like ' geneat,' the lower class of freemen and serfs above the slaves, 110, 144 Chamavi, pagus chamaviorum, 285 Co-aration, or co-cperative ploughing by contributors to team of eight oxen, 117. Described in Welsh Laws as 'Cyvar,' 118-124; in Ireland, 226; in Palestine, 314; in Roman pro- vinces, 278 Coloni, position of, on the later Roman villa, 266. Right of lord to compel son to continue his parent's holding and services, 267. Often barbarians, 209. Like uritfmctuarii, 800, ». Pos- sibly with single succession, 308-310 DRE Commendation, surrender, putting a freeman under the pairocinium or lordship of another, instances of, 305. Salvian's description of, 307. Effect of, 307-310. Practice continues un- der Alamannic and Bavarian laws, allowing surrenders to the Church, 316-336 Continuity of English village sites, 424- 436 Cornage, cornagium, tribute on horned cattle, 71 Co-tillage. See Co-aration Cotsetla, or cottier, in ' Rectitudines, = bordarius in Domesday Survey, 130; his services, &c, 130-131 Cottier tenants, holders in villenage of a few scattered strips in open fields, 24, 29, 34, 69 Cyvar. See Co-aration i T)AER' and ' Saer' tenancy in Ire* -^ land, 231 Davies, Sir John, his surveys in Ireland and description of the Irish tribal system, 214-231 Dawnbwyd, food rent of Welsh taeogs, 198 Decuria, of slaves on Roman villa, 264 Dimetian Code of South Wales. See 'Wales, Ancient Laws of Domesday Survey (a.d. 1086). Manors everywhere, 82. Lord's demesne and land in villenage, 84. Assessment by hides and carucates, 84 ; in Kent by solins, 85 ; liberi homines and toch- manni in Danish district, 86-89. Tenants in villenage, villani, bordarii or cottarii, and servi, 89. The villani holders of virgates or yard-lands, 91 ; examples from surveys of Middlesex, Herts, and Liber Elionsis, 92-94. Bordarii hold about five acres each, more or less, 95-97. Survey of Villa of Westminster, 97-101 ; area of arablo land in England, and how much of it held in the yard-lands of villani, 101-104. Survey of portions of Wales, 182-184, 211 Doles, or Dsels, i.e. pieces or strips, hence ' gedal-land,' 110; and run- dale (or run-rig) system of taking strips in rotation or scattered about, 228 (see also Doles of Meadow-land, 25) Drengage, hunting service (Boldon Book), 71 Index and Glossary. 157 ERE ham J^BEDIW, Welsh death payment or heriot, 195 Edward the Confessor, his dying vision of the open fields round Westminster, 100 Einzelhofe, German single farms in Westphalia, 371 Enclosure Acts, 4,000 between 1760— 1844, 13 English settlements, methods of, 412- 423 Ergastulum, prison for slaves on Roman villa, 264 Erw, Welsh acre, the actual strips in open fields described in Welsh Laws, 119 Etch, crop sown on stubble, 377 Ethelbcrt, Laws of, hams and tuns in private ownership and mention of laets, 173-174 TpABER, or village blacksmith, holds his virgate free of services, 70 Fleta (temp. Ed. I.), description of manor in, 45 Forera (Saxon foryrthe), or headland, 20, 108 Frankpledge, View of, 10 Franks, their inroads, 283 ; deported into Belgic Gaul, 284 Frisians, 285. Tribute in hides, 306, n. Furlong (shot, or quarentena), division of open fields ' a furrow long,' divided into strips or acres, 4 ; in Saxon open fields, 108 ; German, Gewann, 380 C1AFOL (from German Gaben, Abga- ben, food gifts under German tribal system), tribute, 144, 145 ; in money and in kind, of villein tenants. Perhaps survival of Roman tributum based upon tribal food rents {see •Roman tributum,' and 'jugatio,' ' gwestva ') ; of villani, on English manors, 78 ; of gcbur, on Saxon manors, 132, 140-142, 155, 162. Marked a semi-servile condition, 146, 326 Gafol-land, 137. See Geneat-land Gafol-gilder, payer of gafol or tribute, 145 Gafol-yrth, the ploughing of generally three acre strips and sowing by the gebur, from his own barn, and reap- ing and carrying of crop to lord's barn by way of rent; in ' Rcctitudines,' 132-140; on Hysseburno Manor of King Alfred, 162; in South Gorm.iny inseven th century, 326 etseq. PossiMy survival of the agrarium or tenth of produce on Roman provincial tithe lands, 399-403 Gavael, the tribal homestead and hold- ing in N. Wales, 200-202 Gavelkind, Irish gabal-cined, distin- guished by equal division among heirs, 220, 352 Gebur, villanus proper, or owner of a yard-land normally of thirty acres with outfit of two oxen and seed, ir. ' Rectitudines,' 131-133. Hisservices described, 131-133, and 137-143; his gafol and week-work in respect of yard-land, 142; his outfit or ' setene,' 133, 143; in laws of Ine, 147. Services and gafol on Tidenham Manor of King Edwy, 154. In High German ' Gebur and Gipur ' = vicinus, 394, and compare 278 Gedal-land, land divided into strips (Laws of Ine), 110. See Doles Geneat, a wide term covering all tenants in villenage, 129, 137, 154. Servile condition of, liable to have life taken by lord, 146 Geneat-land, land in villenage as opposed to ' thane's inland,' or land in demesne, 116. Sometimes called ' gesettes-land ' and ' gafol-land, 128, 150; 'gyrds of gafol-land,' 150 Geset-land, land set or let out to husbandmen, 128. See ' Geneav- land' Gored Acres, 6trips in open fields pointed at one end, 6, 20 ; in Saxon open fields, 108 Gwely, the Welsh family couch (lectus), also a name for a family holding, 195; in Record of Carnarvon, 194 Gwentian Code, of South Wales. See ' Wales, Ancient Laws of Gwestva, food rent of Welsh tribesmen, and tunc pound in lien of it, 195; early evidence of, in Ine's laws, 209- 213 Gyrd (a rod-virga) Gyrdland. See Yardland. See 169- 172 TJAM (hem, heim, haim), in Saxon, like 'tun,' generally = villa or manor, 126, 254. A private estate 458 Index and Glossary. nEA ■with a village community in serfdom upon it, 127. Geographical distribu- tion of suffix, 255. See Villa Headland, strip at head of strips in a furlong on which the plough was turned, 4. Latin 'forera,' Welsh ' penlir' Scotch ' headrig,' German ' antvander,' 5, 380. In Saxon open fields, 108 Hide, normal holding of a free family (hence Latin casatum and the familia of Bede), but in later records corre- sponding with the full plough team of eight oxen, and so = four yard- lands. Used as the unit of assess- ment for early times, 38. Perhaps from Roman times. Compare Roman tributum, 290-294. Connexion with carucate and yard-land, 36. Normal hide, 120 a., 37. Double hide of, 240 a., 37, 39, 51, 54. Possible origin of word, 398. The hide, the hof, and the centuria compared, 395 Hitchin (Herts), its ' open fields,' 1-7- Map of township and of an estate therein, opposite title-page. Map of Purwell field, 6. Its village com- munity described in Manor Rolls of 1819, 8, and appendix. Boundaries, 9. Officers, 10. Common fields, 11. Its Celtic name Hiz, 429. Roman remains, 430. Continuity of villages in Hitchin district from Celtic and Roman and Saxon times, 424-436 Hiwisc, Saxon for family holding, 162, 395 Honey, Welsh rents in. See Gwestva, 207, 211-213 Hordwell, boundaries of, in Saxon Charter, 107 Hundred Bolls of Edward I., a.d. 1279, evidence of, as to the prevalence of the Manor, the open-field system and serfdom in five Midland Counties, 32, et seq. Husband-lands in Kelso and New- minster Records = virgitte or yard- land, 61 H'/darii, holders of hides, 52 bvme, .Manor of Stoko by, on the river Itchin near Winchester, held by King Alfred, 160. Serfdom and services of ceorls on, 162 JNE, LAWS OF (a.d. 688), eridence oi open-field system, 109. Acre LEX strips, 110. Yardlands, 142. Hides and half hides, 147. Geneats, geburs, gafol, week- work, 147. Welsh food rents, 212-213 Ing, suffix to local names ; whether denotes clan settlements and where, found, 354-367 Inquisitio Elicnsis mentions liberi homines and sochmanni, 87. Men- tions villani as holding virgates, &c. 94. Mentions both bordarii and cottarii, 96 Isle of Man, early division of land into ballys and quarters, 222 JUGATIO. See Roman tributum Jugerum, size and form of, 387 Jugum. (See Roman tributum.) Roman unit of assessment, 289-295. De scription of, in Syrian Code, 291. Analogy to virgate and hide, and sulung, 292 Jiingsten-Recht, right of youngest to succeed to holding, 352-354. See also under Welsh laws, 193, 197 J£ELSO, ABBEY OF, ' Botulus re- dituum,'1 stuht or outfit to tonants of, 61 T AMMAS LAND, meadows owned in strips, but commonable after Lammas Day, in Hitchin Manor, 1 1 ; :n laws of Ine, 110 Lcen-land, lands granted as a benefice for life to a thane, 168 Leeti, conquered barbarians deported and settled on public lands during later Roman rule, chiefly in Belgic Gaul and Britain, 280-289 Leges Alamannorum (a.d. 622), sur- renders to Church allowed under,317 ; services of servi and coloni of the Church under, 323 Leges Baiuwariorum (7th century) sur- renders under, 317. Services of coloni and servi of the Church under, 325 Leges Rijmariorum, 304 Lex Salica, use of ' villa' in a manorial sense, 259-262, 303 Lex Visigothorum (a.d. 650 about) in division of land between Romans and Visigoths, fifty aripounes allotted per singula uratra, 276 n. Index and Glossary. 459 LIB (il E Liber Niger of Peterborough Abbey (a.d. 1125), nearest evidence to the Domesday Survey, 72 et seq. Libere tenentes, holders of portions of demesne-land, i.e. land not in villi in- age, 33. Villeins holding yard-lands in villenage may be libere tenentes of other land besides, 34. Increasing in later times, 54. Absent from Domes- day survey generally, 86 ; Archdeacon Hale's theory of their presence dis- proved, 86-87 n. Liberi homines, of Domesday Survey in Danish districts, 86, 102 Lince, or lynch, acre strip in open fields formed into a terrace by always turn- ing the sod downwards in ploughing a hill side, 5 ; sketch of, 5 ; in Saxon opeD fields, 108; in Yorkshire 'reean' and Germany 'rain' = toeeor balk, 381 Lingones, 284 Lorsch (Laurcsham), instances of sur- renders to the Abbey of, 329-333 Jj^AENOL, cluster of tribal home- steads in Welsh laws, in North Wales of sixteen homesteads paying between them the tunc pound, 202. In South Wales the maenol is a group of twelve trevs, each paying tunc pound, 203-4 Manor, or villa, in Saxon, ham or tun. An estate of a lord or thane with a village community generally in serf- dom upon it Hitchin Manor and its connexion with open-field system, 1-13. Manors before Domesday Survey — Winslow, 22 ; Hundred Eolls, 32 ; described in Fleta, 45 ; Battle Abbey and St. Paul's 49 ; Gloucester and Worcester, 55 ; Blea- don, 57 ; Newminstor and Kelso, 60. In Boldon Book, 68 ; in Liber Niger of Peterborough, 72 ; summary, 76. In Domesday Survey manors every- where, 82 et seq. Westminster, 97. Saxon ' hams ' and ' tuns ' were manors, 126 et seq. Manor of Tiden- ham, of King Edwy, 148. Hysse- burne, of King Alfred, 160. Creation of new manors, 166. Terra Regis composed of manors, 167. 'Hams' and ' tuns' in King Kthelbert's laws, manors, i.e., in private ownership with semi-servile tenants (Icets) upon the m, 17.'!. There were m in England before s'. ! arrival, 176 English and Prankish identical, 253. V ilia of S die Laws probably a manor on Te 259-203. Lib to, 263-272 (see Roman ' Villa i. Villas, or fiscal district of Imperial officials, tend to become manors, 800 305. Transition from villa- under Alamannic and Bavarian laws in South Germany, 316-836. Frank- ish manors, their tenants and ser- vices, 333. Manorial tendencies of German tribal system, 346 Monetary System, Gallic and Welsh pound of 240 pence of silver di \ into twelve uncise each of a Bcore pence, 204. The Gallic system in Eoman times, 234, 292 jffERVII, 284 Neurminster Abbey, cartulary of, 60 No Man's Land, or 'Jack's Land,' odds and ends of lands in open fields, 6. In Saxon boundaries, 108 QP EN-FIELD System in England; re- mains of open fields described, I, et seq. Divided into acre or half-acre strips, 2, and furloDgs or shots, I. Holdings in bundles of scattered strips, 7; i.e., hides, half-hides, yard- lands, &c. (to which refer). Wi